What Are the Contributory and Compensatory Relationships Between Physical Education and Physical Activity in Children?

Limited data are available on the contributory and compensatory relationships between physical education and physical activity in children. Four hundred eighty-five (280 girls) children in first through sixth grades wore sealed pedometers during waking hours, including normally scheduled physical education lessons. The least, moderately, and most active children accumulated approximately 1,700, 1,100, and 2,500 more steps/day, respectively, on school days with physical education. No compensatory increases in physical activity were found on school days that did not offer physical education. The implications of the contributory relationship are highlighted by the evidence that 50% of the least active children were at risk for overweight or overweight and that no compensatory increases in physical activity were found on school days when physical education classes were not scheduled.     

What's new in the 2020 World Health Organization Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior?

Toward the end of 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) released a new set of guidelines for physical activity and sedentary behavior.1 For any aspect of he...     

Is practical subject matter knowledge still important? Examining the Siedentopian perspective on the role of content knowledge in physical education teacher education

Background: The role that content knowledge, an important component of practical subject matter knowledge, plays for pre-service teachers (PSTs) in physical education teacher education (PETE) remains contested and unclear. Whilst some researchers emphasise the facilitative nature of such knowledge, others criticise that too much focus on content knowledge has a negative effect on the development of pupil-centred and critical pedagogies. Despite of its seeming importance, specific research into this aspect of the knowledge base remains scarce.

Purpose: This research set out to examine the effects that varying levels of content knowledge had on the development of PSTs in PETE. In doing so, it aimed to create an enhanced understanding of how this knowledge base influences the learning and development of PSTs in PETE.

Methods and procedures: Shulman’s [1987. ‘Knowledge and Teaching: Foundation of the new Reform’. Harvard Educational Review 57 (1): 1–22] conceptualisation of the knowledge base for teaching was used to delineate the concept of content knowledge. Influenced by a constructivist approach to grounded theory, this study employed semi-structured interviews, lesson observations and post-lesson reflections as main instruments of data collection during three stages of a one-year PETE programme at a University in the UK. Using constant comparative analysis, data from 12 PSTs (6 female; 6 male) were analysed, following a 2-stage analysis procedure as outlined by Charmaz [2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. London: Sage].

Main outcomes and results: Content knowledge limitations were found to have numerous effects on PSTs. Lack of teaching confidence, as well as adverse impact on enacted teaching knowledge (pedagogical content knowledge) highlighted that at least ‘adequacy’ of content knowledge is needed, if PSTs are to use more advanced pedagogical strategies with confidence. Content knowledge was seen to be context specific and contextualised within the curriculum delivered in the respective schools, where PSTs were placed. In-depth content knowledge was perceived to be an asset that could be used to design and teach lessons that were responsive to pupil need.

Conclusions: In line with Siedentop’s [[1989] 2002. ‘Content Knowledge for Physical Education’. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 21 (4): 368–377] critique of the academicisation of PETE, this study confirmed the facilitative role of content knowledge. Whilst such knowledge by itself does not guarantee good teaching, the debate about the wider role practical subject matter knowledge needs be re-visited. As universities and schools reposition and redefine their roles within a changing landscape of teacher education partnership models and the academic priorities and funding limitations at UK universities, the development of a range and depth of content knowledge represents an evolving challenge for all of those involved in PETE.     

Mixed messages: pre-service Health and Physical Education teachers’ understandings of health and the body and the expectations of the Australian curriculum

This paper explores how a cohort of pre-service Health and Physical Education (HPE) teachers from an Australian university describe and construct their understandings of health and the body. Given that the courses that these undergraduates take in their degree programme present different perspectives on health and the body, a relevant question is to what extent these perspectives adequately equip these future HPE teachers to successfully teach the recently released Australian HPE curriculum. The participants in this study were 14 pre-service teachers, 11 females and 3 males, aged between 18 and 26 at the time of the first interview. The data used for this paper were taken from a larger study and were generated through interviews, the analysis of two undergraduate course profiles and an analysis of the new National HPE curriculum. Results reveal that there are some dominant discourses in health-related courses that may have a significant impact on these students. The purpose of HPE, the role of the HPE teacher and the idea of the HPE teacher as role model are also discussed. The results suggest that pre-service teachers face several challenges and dissonances between what they learn during their undergraduate programme and what the Australian HPE curriculum expects them to teach. How pre-service HPE teachers think about and relate to health and the body is important in terms of how they think about their professional practice and the influence they may have on their future pupils.     

Rethinking the ‘aspirations’ of Chinese girls within and beyond Health and Physical Education and physical activity in Greater Western Sydney

This paper aims to explore young Chinese girls’ aspirations and ideal environments for engagement in Health and Physical Education (HPE) and physical activity (PA) in Greater Western Sydney. Interviews are used to elicit these girls’ perceptions of their future and ideal environments in relation to HPEPA. Their data offer insights into key influences regarding what is thinkable, desirable and achievable in their HPEPA environments. Results showed dimensions of environments, such as social and pedagogical aspects, that are conducive to these girls’ aspirations in HPEPA (e.g. social support from parents, and functional built environment for HPE). This paper aligns with a strengths-based approach to understanding and recognising young Chinese girls’ perceived aspirations within their socio-cultural environment. In doing so, we discuss how feminism and femininity are positioned from a Chinese perspective that may provide alternative views to a post-feminist panorama in promoting advancement of all young girls in HPEPA. Results invite us to take into account some of the girls’ ambivalence towards being an ‘autonomous’ and ‘dependent’ modern Chinese young girl. This paper calls for a rethinking of how aspirations that shape young people’s future in HPEPA in much of the contemporary Western world are conceptualised in academic research.     

Christianity and the Rise of Western Physical Education and Sport in Modern China, 1840–1920s

Christianity, as practised by missionary educational institutions and the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) and Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), was an important means of introducing and popularizing Western physical education and sport in modern China from 1840 to the 1920s. The research investigates how and why missionary educational institutions and the YMCA and YWCA contributed to the rise of physical education and sport in modern China. This analysis examines the activities of missionary educational institutions and the YMCA and YWCA in China during this period to uncover what really contributed to pave the way for Christianity, as well as led to this rise of Western physical education and sport in modern China from 1840 to the 1920s.     

What limits of legitimate discourse? The case of elite sport as ‘thinkable’ official knowledge in the Norwegian national curriculum

In 2006, elite sport was introduced into the Norwegian national curriculum as an elective subject in the pre-tertiary school. Grades achieved in this 5-hours-a-week subject count towards school-leavers' overall attainment grades. Prior to 2006, this subject was only offered as a specially adapted, alternative pedagogy in private schools. The paper analyzes how ideas about elite performance have become mainstream, particularly in light of the seeming lack of public policy supporting such a development. By using Bernstein's conceptual tools, it analyzes the few existing policy statements about elite sport in the pre-tertiary education sector and builds on interview data with key policy players in the Norwegian Parliament in order to shed light on this seemingly market-driven development. It asks which discourses have legitimated the transformation of elite sport skills, knowledge and values from an exclusive private school niche to national curricular knowledge to meet the physically, most-able and ambitious athlete-students in the pre-tertiary schools, and in so doing, include the development of sport athletes as an educational task of the comprehensive school system. Finally, it addresses whether agencies outside education policy circles may have affected the legitimation of elite sport as elective curricular knowledge to a certain group of students.     

'It's Only the Sissies …': Analysis of Teaching and Learning Processes in Physical Education: A Contribution to the Hidden Curriculum

The article is a discussion and an analysis of an event observed in a critical classroom study on teaching and learning in physical education. It demonstrates how sociocultural discourses are embedded in children's and teachers' discursive practices [Fairclough (1992) Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge, Polity Press)] in the classroom, how discourses of physical education and discourses of gender relations are connected, and how these construct and are constructed by the social structures of the physical education lesson, and influence students' learning. Using the notion of situated learning [Lave & Wenger (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press); Wenger (1998) Community of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press)], the paper analyses how discourses in the physical education setting influence children's learning processes, and points to the different meanings the discursive practices observed in the classroom have for the girls as compared to the boys. This analysis allows for some concluding comments on learning and the hidden curriculum in physical education.     

What must I know to be brave?: revisiting the role of knowledge in the exercise of courage in sport

The Platonic definition of courage as the ‘knowledge of the fearful and the hopeful’ is often eschewed by philosophers of sport. In fact, the passionate nature of sport itself seems to testify against such a definition. Hence, accounts of courage within sport tend to emphasize the affective dimension of courage at the expense of the cognitive dimension. This essay argues in defense of the Platonic vision of courage as a species of knowledge as opposed to contemporary attempts to recover the affective dimension of courage, as exemplified by John Corlett. I shall argue that far from producing an overly intellectualized vision of courage, treating courage as a species of knowledge, even within sport, throws valuable light on the exercise of courage in sport and on the shape of sport itself with regards to the exercise of virtue.     

Cultural Imperialism,Nationalism, and the Modernization of Physical Education and Sport in China, 1840–1949

Abstract

This paper examines how missionary educational institutions and Young Men’s Christian Association physical education and sport programmes, in conjunction with the nation-building project of the Nationalist government, transformed and modernized physical education and sport in China from 1840 to 1937. The concepts of cultural imperialism and nationalism are central to this study, to understand how the two interacted in the process of the development of modern physical education and sports in China. This paper argues that the cultural imperialism model is ineffective for an understanding of the impact of missionaries on Chinese society and the subsequent transformation and indigenization of physical education and sport in modern China. More precisely, the way in which Chinese nationalism played an active role in resisting, selecting, and reshaping the cultural products (modern physical education and sport) evidences a process that was an active negotiation, rather than a passive consumption, of Western culture. This said, Christian physical education and sport programmes had long-lasting effects on how physical education and sports became the way to define ‘modern’ bodies as they were incorporated into the wider education programme of modernizing China under the Nationalist government.     

Marking Physical Literacy or Missing the Mark on Physical Literacy? A Conceptual Critique of Canada’s Physical Literacy Assessment Instruments

Margaret Whitehead first introduced the concept of physical literacy over 20 years ago. Since that introduction, physical literacy has been gaining in popularity within many Western physical education and sport contexts. This is particularly true within Canada, where physical literacy has been embraced by two of the nation’s most notable national physical education and sport organizations (i.e., Physical and Health Education Canada, Canadian Sport for Life). As physical literacy has been generating interest and action by these organizations, they, and others, have been quick to also seek methods by which to measure it. However, it is our observation that despite the promises and possibilities of physical literacy resources, initiatives, and programs, Canada’s most accessible physical literacy assessment instruments are wanting for focused and direct contemplation. In this article, we offer a conceptual critique of the physical literacy assessment instruments being developed for and practices being encouraged within Canadian school communities. Our contemplations consider three physical literacy assessment instruments, and they are focused, principally, upon usability, trustworthiness, and fidelity to Whitehead’s conception of physical literacy. We conclude that the instruments differ in their ease of use and usefulness, some are lacking, markedly, with respect to trustworthiness, and some fail to capture physical literacy as Whitehead intended it. Finally, in light of these conclusions, we offer suggestions for future practice and inquiry.     

Effect of the ball mass on the one-on-one game situation in 9–11 year old boys' basketball

Abstract

Children normally lack the strength and physical characteristics required to use the equipment and rules of adult sports. Studies that utilise a test have shown that changes in the ball mass may improve shot performance and other ball handling skills. The objective of this study was to analyse with which ball participants played a higher number of one-on-one situations in basketball. The participants were 54 nine to eleven-year-old boys from six teams. We established three situations in which the participants played four games with each of the following balls: (a) regulation ball (485 g, 69–71 cm), (b) ball of smaller mass (440 g, 69–71 cm), and (c) ball of greater mass (540 g, 69–71 cm). The procedures that were followed were: (a) defining the variable, the dependent variable was the number of one-on-one situations; (b) instructing the observers and obtaining reliability, reliability was above 0.95; (c) monitoring the properties of the ball and filming the games; and (d) recording (four observers) the data from the observation of the game videos. The results reflected statistically significant differences for the number of one-on-one situations χ ² (2, N=1,858)=44.510, P=0.000, indicating an increase when using the 440 g ball in comparison to the regulation ball, the 540 g ball, and the results of the reviewed studies.     

On the Effect of Concept of Physical Education on Modern College Students＇ Life Style——with the Field Survival Training as an Example

通过文献资料阐述了现代生活方式的概念及其涵义,分析了现代社会由于经济的全球化,文化的多元化,使现代大学生的生活方式发生了一些嬗变,严重影响了他们的健康成长;并以野外生存生活训练为例剖析了其中所蕴含的体育理念,论证了在大学校园里这些体育理念的渗透能科学地引领大学生的生活方式,使其成为未来社会的一个正常的、快乐的、智力的、有实力的人。     

Trends in International Research Presented Through the Research Consortium of the American Alliance for Health,Physical Education,Recreation and Dance (1965–2008)

The extent of international research on the Research Consortium's program between 1965 and 2008 was documented. A total of 9,132 abstracts were reviewed, and 657 (7.19%) had an international component. Inclusion of international research ranged from a low of 1.97% in 1983 to a high of 14.24% in 2007. There was a decrease in the amount of international research presented between 1965 and 1983, after which there was an increase through 2008. Most growth was from increased contributions coming from researchers in Southeast Asia. In terms of general research topics, eight areas increased over the 44-year history reviewed, and five areas decreased. Seven recommendations are advanced for expanding the place and role of international research within the Research Consortium.     

What is really causing the obesity epidemic? A review of reviews in children and adults

Obesity prevention is a public health priority and intervention strategies have focused primarily on healthy eating and physical activity in children and adults. To date, no review has systematically compiled and synthesised the scientific evidence from published review articles to determine whether there is clear consensus on the causes of obesity. A systematic review of the literature was conducted searching PubMed/Medline for narrative and systematic review articles published between January 1990 and October 2014 that examined the causes of obesity. In total, 12 of 65 articles met the inclusion criteria; 7 reviews focused on adults (1 systematic, 6 narrative) and 5 reviews on children (2 systematic, 3 narrative). The most popular cause of obesity identified in reviews of adult studies was “combined physical activity and diet” (3 of 7 studies), whereas the most popular cause specified in reviews of child studies was deemed “inconclusive” (2 of 5 studies). While a number of reviews have examined the causes of obesity, the methodology and conclusions varied widely, and few were conducted systematically. Currently, no consensus exists across published literature reviews regarding the primary cause of the obesity epidemic, and more research, particularly prospective studies using state-of-the-art measures, is warranted.     

What makes an orienteer an expert? A case study of a highly elite orienteer's concerns in the course of competition

This article reports a highly elite orienteer's cognitive activity over the course of two international competitions. We characterize the orienteer's concerns in relation to the problems raised during the competitions. The participant wore a head-mounted video camera throughout the competitions to enable the capture of an events record from the participant's perspective. During a post-performance self-confrontation interview, the participant was played the video and asked to describe his activity in relation to the events observed. The interview data were then used to identify the orienteer's concerns at each instant during the races. These "local" concerns were then compared and subsequently classified to characterize the typical concerns of the participant. Results showed three typical concerns: (a) find the controls faster than the opponents; (b) optimize running pace throughout the race; and (c) reflect on actions undertaken during performance. Results suggest the performer used a range of knowledge-driven strategies that enhanced the efficiency of task performance, and flexibly switched between strategies and decision-options in the face of presented changes in the task status. He also engaged in various reflective processes concurrent with performance that augmented the use of these strategies. In conclusion, this study provides insight into the cognitive processes underlying expert performance in sports characterized by decision-making under complexity, uncertainty, and time pressure.     

What makes an orienteer an expert? A case study of a highly elite orienteer's concerns in the course of competition

Abstract

This article reports a highly elite orienteer's cognitive activity over the course of two international competitions. We characterize the orienteer's concerns in relation to the problems raised during the competitions. The participant wore a head-mounted video camera throughout the competitions to enable the capture of an events record from the participant's perspective. During a post-performance self-confrontation interview, the participant was played the video and asked to describe his activity in relation to the events observed. The interview data were then used to identify the orienteer's concerns at each instant during the races. These “local” concerns were then compared and subsequently classified to characterize the typical concerns of the participant. Results showed three typical concerns: (a) find the controls faster than the opponents; (b) optimize running pace throughout the race; and (c) reflect on actions undertaken during performance. Results suggest the performer used a range of knowledge-driven strategies that enhanced the efficiency of task performance, and flexibly switched between strategies and decision-options in the face of presented changes in the task status. He also engaged in various reflective processes concurrent with performance that augmented the use of these strategies. In conclusion, this study provides insight into the cognitive processes underlying expert performance in sports characterized by decision-making under complexity, uncertainty, and time pressure.     

Is a single question of the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) valid for measuring sedentary behaviour in the Chilean population?

A study was conducted to assess the validity of the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) for measuring sedentary behaviour (SB) in the Chilean adult population. About 217 adults (93/124 male/female, 43.8 ± 15.75 years) who were randomly selected during National Health Survey 2009–2010 completed the protocol. The participants wore an ActiGraph GT3X (AG) for 7 consecutive days and then completed the GPAQ (single-item question for measuring time spent sitting in a usual day). Validity was examined using Spearman’s correlation, mean bias and limits of agreement (LoA), with AG (vertical axis <100 counts · min^?1) as the reference standard for estimates of SB in bouts of 1 (AG1), 5 (AG5) and 10 (AG10) min. Agreement between the GPAQ and AG for classifying data into quartiles and tertiles was assessed with kappa method. The GPAQ showed fair correlation with AG1, AG5 and AG10 (range = 0.23–0.26), with large mean biases (range = ?293.9, ?76.12 min · day^?1). Agreement between the GPAQ and AG1, AG5 and AG10 was poor for categorising time spent in SB into tertiles and quartiles. The single question from the GPAQ has shown fair validity for measuring SB and poor ability for correctly classifying individuals into tertiles or quartiles of SB in a Chilean population.