Science, Worldviews and Education: An Introduction

This special issue of Science & Education deals with the theme of ‘Science, Worldviews and Education’. The theme is of particular importance at the present time as many national and provincial education authorities are requiring that students learn about the Nature of Science (NOS) as well as learning science content knowledge and process skills. NOS topics are being written into national and provincial curricula. Such NOS matters give rise to questions about science and worldviews: What is a worldview? Does science have a worldview? Are there specific ontological, epistemological and ethical prerequisites for the conduct of science? Does science lack a worldview but nevertheless have implications for worldviews? How can scientific worldviews be reconciled with seemingly discordant religious and cultural worldviews? In addition to this major curricular impetus for refining understanding of science and worldviews, there are also pressing cultural and social forces that give prominence to questions about science, worldviews and education. There is something of an avalanche of popular literature on the subject that teachers and students are variously engaged by. Additionally the modernisation and science-based industrialisation of huge non-Western populations whose traditional religions and beliefs are different from those that have been associated with orthodox science, make very pressing the questions of whether, and how, science is committed to particular worldviews. Hugh Gauch Jr. provides a long and extensive lead essay in the volume, and 12 philosophers, educators, scientists and theologians having read his paper, then engage with the theme. Hopefully the special issue will contribute to a more informed understanding of the relationship between science, worldviews and education, and provide assistance to teachers who are routinely engaged with the subject.     

Science, Worldviews, and Education

Whether science can reach conclusions with substantial worldview import, such as whether supernatural beings exist or the universe is purposeful, is a significant but unsettled aspect of science. For instance, various scientists, philosophers, and educators have explored the implications of science for a theistic worldview, with opinions spanning the spectrum from positive to neutral to negative. To delineate a mainstream perspective on science, seven key characterizations or “pillars” of science are adopted from position papers from the world’s largest scientific organization, the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Based on those pillars and an examination of scientific method, I argue that the presuppositions and reasoning of science can and should be worldview independent, but empirical and public evidence from the sciences and humanities can support conclusions that are worldview distinctive. I also critique several problematic perspectives: asserting that science can say nothing about worldviews and the opposite extreme of insisting that science decisively supports one particular worldview; weakening science so severely that it lacks truth claims; and burdening science with unnecessary presuppositions. Worldview-distinctive conclusions based on empirical evidence are suitable for individual convictions and public discussions, but not for institutional endorsements and scientific literacy requirements.     

Joseph Priestley Across Theology, Education, and Chemistry: An Interdisciplinary Case Study in Epistemology with a Focus on the Science Education Context

This paper discusses the findings of a search for the intellectual tools used by Joseph Priestley (1733?C1804) in his chemistry, education, and theology documents. Priestley??s enquiring democratic view of knowledge was applicable in all three areas and constitutes a significant part of his lifework. Current epistemological issues in science education are examined from the point of view of the nature of theory and experiment as observed in Priestley??s writings and as espoused in modern philosophy of science. Science and religious faith issues in the context of science education are examined from the point of view of one??s understanding of sacred texts, and the suggestion is made that a Priestleyan model of ??the liberty to think for oneself?? and ??to hold knowledge with humility and virtue?? could prove helpful in dealing with the known divergent opinions in relation to science, education, and religion.     

Responses and Clarifications Regarding Science and Worldviews

This article responds to the other 10 papers in this thematic issue on science and worldviews and it clarifies some of the points in my lead article. The Bayesian framework provides helpful structure for worldview inquiries by recognizing and integrating both public and personal evidence. Drawing upon the other 10 papers, six kinds of potential evidence or considerations are identified: the problem of evil, evolution, miracles and prayer, the Anthropic Principle, religious experience, and natural theology. The thesis is defended that considerations informing worldview convictions include public evidence from the sciences and the humanities and personal evidence from individual experience. Additional topics addressed briefly include scientific realism, the tentativeness of scientific knowledge, science’s presuppositions, the relationship between natural science and natural theology, the nature of religious faith, and the importance of philosophy in science education. Seven questions are posed for which further leadership from the AAAS and NAS would benefit the scientific community.     

Imagining the World: The Significance of Religious Worldviews for Science Education

This article begins by examining whether ‘science’ and ‘religion’ can better be seen as distinct or related worldviews, focusing particularly on scientific and religious understandings of biodiversity. I then explore how people can see the natural world, depending on their worldview, by looking at two contrasting treatments of penguin behaviour, namely that provided in the film March of the Penguins and in the children’s book And Tango Makes Three. I end by drawing some initial conclusions as to what might and what might not be included about religion in school science lessons. Science educators and teachers need to take account of religious worldviews if some students are better to understand the compass of scientific thinking and some of science’s key conclusions. It is perfectly possible for a science teacher to be respectful of the worldviews that students occupy, even if these are scientifically limited, while clearly and non-apologetically helping them to understand the scientific worldview on a particular issue.     

申论马克思主义哲学、科学和世界观

马克思主义哲学是科学,因为哲学属于人文科学,是现代科学的一部分。科学是一种理性的、全方位的世界观、认识论和方法论,其中包含哲学,但不局限于哲学。人类除了科学之外,还有许多其他世界观。当代文明的世界观是一个丰富的、多层次的体系。从文化性质上看,马克思主义是意识形态而不是科学。科学研究者会有其信仰,但不必言用其信仰指导科学研究。在人类的文明体系中,科学和意识形态的文化性质不同,因而可说它们是人类不同的世界观。     

Science and Technology in the Classroom

summaries

English

In Britain, the range of new resources developed in the 1960s and early 70s for science teaching in secondary schools have achieved considerable success. However, there are still widespread criticisms by both students and teachers that school science curricula tend to be inward‐looking, divorced from human considerations and unrelated to the influences of technology. Evidence that attitudes to technology among secondary school teachers may be changing is provided by the existence of three new projects; two covering the 13‐16 age range and one the 16‐18. The three projects, although organized quite differently, have much in common. Thus each is developing new kinds of teaching materials which take into account not only the applications of science but also economic, social, ethical and aesthetic considerations as well. The introduction of these new resources will require teaching approaches some of which are at present unfamiliar to many students and some teachers. The development of technology in an educational context could well become a feature of the science curricula of our secondary schools in the 1980s.     

Science Journals in the Preschool Classroom

We believe that science journals can be used in the preschool classroom as tools for supporting and assessing children’s learning of science- and literacy-relevant content and procedures. To support this argument, we review changes in attitudes about the cognitive competencies of preschoolers and in teaching and learning expectations for early childhood education. We describe practical aspects of using science notebooks with this age group and discuss specific ways that journals support children’s learning. Finally, the role of journals in assessment is discussed.     

Ecofeminism and the Science Classroom: A Practical Approach

This paper examines a practical application of ecofeminism for classroom educators, particularly, science educators. Ecofeminism is often, but not exclusively, linked to projects aimed at assisting men, women and children in developing areas to organize and define development projects for their community. Mainstream applications of ecofeminism for science educators are frequently omitted from science education literature. This article gives the reader a basic understanding of ecofeminist theory as it applies to science education. Direct examples from classroom practices suggest five key points in the application of ecofeminism for classroom use.     

Question Asking in the Science Classroom: Teacher Attitudes and Practices

Despite the wide agreement among educators that classroom learning and teaching processes can gain much from student and teacher questions, their potential is not fully utilized. Adopting the view that reporting both teachers’ (of varying age groups) views and actual classroom practices is necessary for obtaining a more complete view of the phenomena at hand, the present study closely examines both cognitive and affective domains of: (a) teachers’ views (via interviews) concerning: (1) importance and roles of teacher and student questions, (2) teacher responses, and (3) planning and teacher training; and (b) teachers’ actual practices (via classroom observations) concerning: (1) number and (2) level of teacher and student questions, as well as (3) teachers’ responses to questions. The data were collected from 3 elementary, 3 middle, and 3 high school science teachers and their respective classroom students. The findings lay out a wide view of classroom questioning and teachers’ responses, and relate what actually occurs in classes to teachers’ stated views. Some of the study’s main conclusions are that a gap exists between how science researchers and teachers view the role of teacher questions: the former highlight the cognitive domain, while the latter emphasize the affective domain.     

Teaching and Learning in the Mixed-Reality Science Classroom

As emerging technologies become increasingly inexpensive and robust, there is an exciting opportunity to move beyond general purpose computing platforms to realize a new generation of K-12 technology-based learning environments. Mixed-reality technologies integrate real world components with interactive digital media to offer new potential to combine best practices in traditional science learning with the powerful affordances of audio/visual simulations. This paper introduces the realization of a learning environment called SMALLab, the Situated Multimedia Arts Learning Laboratory. We present a recent teaching experiment for high school chemistry students. A mix of qualitative and quantitative research documents the efficacy of this approach for students and teachers. We conclude that mixed-reality learning is viable in mainstream high school classrooms and that students can achieve significant learning gains when this technology is co-designed with educators.     

Closing the Gap: Inquiry in Research and the Secondary Science Classroom

Teaching students how to conduct authentic scientific inquiry is an essential aspect of recent science education reform efforts. Our National Science Foundation-funded GK-12 program paired science graduate students—fellows—with secondary science teachers in order to enhance inquiry-based instruction. This research examined the roles of the fellows, teachers, and school culture in the implementation of inquiry and the fellows’ conceptions of classroom inquiry versus that in their own research. Qualitative data were collected for two academic years. Overall, the classrooms shifted toward a more inquiry-oriented approach over the academic year. Several aspects of school culture influenced inquiry implementation. Fellows described their research as similar in overall structure but less constrained by known concepts, less guided by mentors, and more in-depth than that of secondary school students. The teacher-fellow scientist partnership is a potentially effective professional development model to create positive and lasting change within the science classroom.     

Analogical Reasoning in the Classroom: Insights From Cognitive Science

Applying knowledge from one context to another is a notoriously difficult problem, both for children and adults, but lies at the heart of educational endeavors. Analogical reasoning is a cognitive underpinning of the ability to notice and draw similarities across contexts. Reasoning by analogy is especially challenging for students, who must transfer in the context‐rich and often high‐pressure settings of classrooms. In this brief article, we explore how best to facilitate children's analogical reasoning, with the aim of providing practical suggestions for classroom instruction. We first discuss what is known about the development and neurological underpinnings of analogical reasoning, and then review research directly relevant to supporting analogical reasoning in classroom contexts. We conclude with concrete suggestions for educators that may foster their students' spontaneous analogical reasoning and thereby enhance scholastic achievement.     

Learning and Assessment in the Science Classroom in Thailand

The 1990 national curriculum of Thai education and educational reform states that, at primary and secondary educational levels, schools must prepare the child to become a smart, good and a happy individual in the Thai learning society. Teaching and learning must emphasise learning to think, to do and to solve problems. A study into integrating assessment and learning as a single activity was conducted by the Department of Curriculum and Instruction Development to demonstrate that good assessment is an integral part of good instruction. Three major elements of science education are learning science, learning about science and doing science. In the assessment of science, the teacher assesses knowledge and recall of scientific facts, the application of scientific knowledge, processes of science and scientific skills and, of course, attitudes and habits of mind acquired through science education. The assessment procedures are in the form of open-ended paper-and-pencil tests, practical tests, students' work and reports, teacher observation of practical work during the semester, and parents' and peers' comment and criticism. The assessment is a continuous activity in parallel with learning activity.     

Classroom Attrition in Computer Science

Students drop out of university courses for a multitude of reasons. Whatever the cause, the costs of an unsuccessful attempt to complete a course are significant to student and university alike. This paper examines student attrition in computer science classes with the hope of identifying common causes and ultimately reducing the number of students dropping computer science courses. Survey data were analyzed to determine if reasons for dropping differed for various groupings of students including undergraduate/graduate, male/female, computer science major/non‐major, and service/non‐service courses.     

EARTHWATCH Expeditions Impact Science Education: Exposing Teachers to Science and Technology in the Field and in the Classroom

EARTHWATCH expeditions provide teachers with opportunities to work side-by-side with leading scientists, engage first-hand in scientific discovery, use innovative technology, and renew their commitment to teaching. Educators join international EARTHWATCH teams, consisting of members of the public and a research staff, to explore the intricacies of tropical and dry forests, to unearth remains from the past, to monitor endangered ecosystems and species, and to understand the cultural heritage of our world's peoples. EARTHWATCH, an international non-profit organization, sponsors more than 150 research projects in over 55 countries each year. At work in the field, EARTHWATCH teams revel in the mysteries of science and delight in the thrill of discovery. Hands-on scientific investigations inspire teachers to return to their classrooms with enlightened teaching ideas and a strong commitment to global conservation. Working closely with their students, teachers develop innovative classroom projects using the latest technology to promote international sharing of EARTHWATCH project information and subsequent lesson ideas via the Internet. Engaging the reader in six case studies, the following chapter highlights the educational potential of EARTHWATCH and the impact of technology as an innovative teaching tool in the field and the classroom.     

Science on the Web: Students Online in a Sixth-Grade Classroom

Publications from newspapers to research journals are filled with claims about the Internet and its value for education, yet research is just beginning to evaluate uses of these new information resources in the classroom. As part of the University of Michigan Digital Library Project, this research was undertaken as a first step in designing tools for secondary students to access a digital library. The Web offered an initial site for learning how students interact with digital resources and use standard tools. The Web can be seen as a site for student inquiry in science, using it as an information resource that opens the boundaries of the classroom and creates the possibility for students to pursue questions of personal interest. This study looks at students in 6th-grade science classes as they use the Web to carry out an inquiry-based assignment. Their understanding and enactment of their assignment to do research on the Web, their engagement in information seeking, and their use of Web technologies are explored and analyzed. Findings include evidence that students use Web technologies easily but simplistically; that information seeking is a complex and difficult process for these students, who seek to reduce the task to finding an obvious answer or finding a good Web site; and that developing students' understanding of content through use of the Web is a challenge for students and teachers.     

论英国伦敦会传教士艾约瑟与中西科技交流

如何处理基督教文化和儒教文化两大异质文化,成为19世纪中西文化交流中颇为复杂的问题。外国传教士对待中西文化的态度趋于两极。以利玛窦为代表的一些人为了减少传教的阻力,有认同儒学的倾向;另有些人以＂文明和优等民族的代表＂自居而无视中国文化;英国伦敦会传教士艾约瑟则提出＂中学西源说＂。     

Scientific Caricatures in the Earth Science Classroom: An Alternative Assessment for Meaningful Science Learning

Archive-based, historical research of materials produced during the Golden Age of Geology (1788–1840) uncovered scientific caricatures (SCs) which may serve as a unique form of knowledge representation for students today. SCs played important roles in the past, stimulating critical inquiry among early geologists and fueling debates that addressed key theoretical issues. When historical SCs were utilized in a large-enrollment college Earth History course, student response was positive. Therefore, we offered SCs as an optional assessment tool. Paired t-tests that compared individual students’ performances with the SC option, as well as without the SC option, showed a significant positive difference favoring scientific caricatures (α = 0.05). Content analysis of anonymous student survey responses revealed three consistent findings: (a) students enjoyed expressing science content correctly but creatively through SCs, (b) development of SCs required deeper knowledge integration and understanding of the content than conventional test items, and (c) students appreciated having SC item options on their examinations, whether or not they took advantage of them. We think that incorporation of SCs during assessment may effectively expand the variety of methods for probing understanding, thereby increasing the mode validity of current geoscience tests.