The Development of Chinese Martial Arts in Taiwan since 1949

Abstract

In Taiwan, the historical development of traditional Chinese martial arts, or kuoshu and wushu as they are called today, has been quite diverse. This paper examines the development of Chinese martial arts from 1949 to 2017 in the context of Taiwan based on available historical evidence and in-depth interviews. The results show that there were three major historical periods in the development of Chinese martial arts. The foundation period was inaugurated when Chinese martial artists fled to Taiwan with the Nationalists. During this period, martial arts studios spread throughout the country and people began learning the traditional Chinese martial arts skills together with the national physical education curriculum incorporated martial arts in schools. Chinese martial arts in Taiwan then entered the competitive sports period when the Chinese government to promote competitive martial arts internationally and to standardize the practice and grading system required for competitions. During this period, standardized rules for nationwide competition were established, and sports instructors and athletes were trained to participate in international wushu competitions. Currently, the Chinese martial arts have been modernized and being practised to build confidence, mental discipline, and physical strength as well as for self-defence, recreational pursuits, and competition.     

Projecting the ‘Chineseness’: Nationalism,Identity and Chinese Martial Arts Films

Wushu, also known as Kung Fu, is a traditional Chinese martial art. It also symbolises the strength of the Chinese and their pride in their history. Wushu came to be associated with Chinese nationalism after China's various defeats at the hands of foreign imperialist powers at the turn of the twentieth century. This relationship has been further strengthened through martial arts films. In the first half of the twentieth century, martial arts films helped to construct national identity among the Chinese. They also facilitated the development of Wushu, making it a symbol of indigenous virtue and strength. From the late 1960s, influenced by a defensive strain of nationalism, Chinese film-makers began to adopt a new approach to the portrayal of Wushu. Martial arts films were endowed with political and cultural significance, and evolved as a unique representation of Chinese nationalism. Several decades later, martial arts films still retain at their core a sense of ‘Chineseness'. From Bruce Lee's Fist of Fury to Donnie Yen's IP Man, Chinese martial arts films have demonstrated not only the important place of Wushu in Chinese nationalism, but also the influence of nationalism on Chinese cinema.     

武术对青少年社会适应的影响及学生类型的调节效应

为探讨武术对青少年社会适应能力的影响,以及学生类型在其中的调节效应,对207名武术特长生、249名武校学生、168名其他体育特长生和246名普通中学生发放《青少年社会适应状况评估问卷》进行调查。结果发现：（1）武术特长生社会适应能力显著好于普通中学生和武校学生,略好于其他体育特长生;（2）2类学生类型对练习年限在违规行为、积极应对、消极适应总维度上起调节作用,练习年限对武术特长生各维度的预测力不显著,对武校学生在违规行为、积极应对、消极适应总维度上良性发展的预测力显著。该结果说明：（1）体教融合对发展青少年社会适应效果更加显著;（2）武术特长生社会适应略好于其他体育特长生,武术运动的"难美"特征,及贯穿始终武德与传统文化熏陶应是主要的原因;（3）随着武术训练年限的增加,武校学生的不良社会适应会显著下降,良性社会适应会上升。     

Historical Views on the Origins of Korea’s Taekwondo

Abstract

The present study reviews the key contents and issues of Traditionalism, New Traditionalism and Revisionism, the key historical views of Taekwondo, with the purpose of focusing on the validity and limitations of New Revisionism. Traditionalism emphasizes that Taekwondo is Korea’s traditional martial art. New Traditionalism accepts this view and also recognizes the partial effect of Karate on Taekwondo without providing enough supporting evidence on their claims. Revisionism also focuses on the effect of Karate on Taekwondo. While New Revisionism shares a similar focus to Revisionism, it also focuses on the effects of Chinese martial arts on Karate and Taekwondo, which have been neglected previously. The validity of New Revisionism was supported with evidence on the following factors: the effect of Chinese martial arts on Karate, the effect of Chinese martial arts on Korea’s top five martial arts schools and their training methods, and the effect of Chinese martial arts appearing in the book written by the figures related to the top five initial martial arts schools after 1945. Despite a few limitations of the current historical views, New Revisionism suggests that Korea’s Taekwondo was affected by Japanese martial arts and Chinese martial arts, both directly and indirectly, in its formation.     

福建省部分高校武术课武德教育的调查分析

采用问卷调查、数理统计、文献资料以及专家访谈等方法,调查和分析福建省部分高校武德教育的现状。结果表明：当前习武大学生对武德缺乏足够的认识;对武德的内涵、内容理解不够;大学生在习武过程中武德修养还不够完善;教师在武术课教学中武德教育的实施还不全面。针对这些问题,结合武德教育现时代的内涵和价值、积极作用和意义,提出加强武德教育,开设武德教育课程,创设武德教育情境等措施。     

对峨嵋武术产业化发展的思考

峨嵋派武术有着辉煌的过去,是中华武术三大流派之一,而今昔日的辉煌已失。如何重拯救雄风,开创峨嵋派武术的新局面,已成为我们当前工作的重点。本文运用文献资料法、调查分析法、资料统计法等多种研究方法,从社会学、历史学、经济管理学、市场营销学的角度出发,结合峨嵋派武术实际的情况,对制约其发展的主要因素加以研究和总结,提出,在中国社会经济体制改革与武术走向世界的时代背景下,决定了峨嵋派武术越须走国际化、市场化、产业化发展的道路,峨嵋武术,要想得到振兴和发展就越须彻底地、大胆的进行改革．首先：是观念的更新,要建立与之相适应的市场观念、竞争观念、创新观念、服务观念、信息观念和人才观念,它是实现峨嵋武术做大做强的目标前提：其次：深化改革是峨嵋武术发展的关键,应建立峨嵋武术的经济实体,实行专业化的统一管理,应采用联盟制的集团化经营模式;第三,拓展市场是峨嵋武术产业化发展的核心,这就要求我们必须认真做好调查研究,充分了解市场,做好宣传工作,不断开拓创新,挖掘潜在的市场,扩大峨嵋武术在市场的占有份额,这样才能加快峨嵋武术发展的步伐。     

对普通高校武术教学多元化模式的探索

武术是普通高校体育教学的重要内容,也是武术发展普及的重要途径之一。高校武术教学需要教师发扬积极探索与创新的精神,积极探索新颖的教学手段和方法,充分调动起学生对武术学习的兴趣与热情,以取得更好的教学效果。现代化的高科技和多媒体技术在武术中的运用对武术教学起到了良好的推动作用;俱乐部制武术教学是对高校体育教学的一个大胆改革和尝试。高校武术教学模式的丰富和多元化是进一步提高高校武术教学生命力的必由之路。     

传统武术纳人“人类非物质文化遗产”体系进行抢救与保护的研究

采用文献资料法、实例分析法、逻辑推理法和综合归纳法等,研究濒危失传或正在失传的传统武术,提出要从“人类非物质文化遗产”的高度对其加以抢救和保护。认为:由少林功夫“申遗”给予的启示是少林武术是我国传统武术的重要流派,少林武术能率先想到并能积极开展卓有成效的“申遗”工作,相比之下其他传统武术流派明显滞后等。目前传统武术在发展中存在的问题是“孤芳自赏”带来的尴尬局面;挖整成果一直处于“沉睡”的状态等。发展传统武术的基本方略是重新为传统武术文化定位、为传统武术提供法律保障等。旨在为传统武术的抢救和保护提供有益的借鉴。     

先秦与古希腊武术文化异同比较研究

本文通过文献法,从历史学、考古学的角度比较分析了先秦与古希腊武术文化之异同。从中看出,先秦与古希腊在武术文化有很相似之处,但由于先秦与古希腊地理环境、战争形式和历史文化因素的不同,其武术文化的形成上有各自的特点。古希腊武术突出力量、追求远度,并形成古奥林匹克竞技项目是其特点。而我国先秦武术讲究技巧,并形成一套以阴阳五行为理论基础的武术理论,从而使中体武术独具魅力,形成与古希腊武术文化完全不同的风格。     

武术教育价值研究

文章运用文献资料法、调查法等研究方法,初步研究了在西方强势文化的冲击下,特别是在跆拳道、柔道、空手道等外来文化的影响下,我们的青少年对武术的学习逐渐失去了兴趣,转而纷纷投入到这些外来先进项目中去,我们的民族文化传承与发展遇到了严重的危机,这是对武术教育的挑战,因为武术的教育关系到武术的普及、推广以及武术文化的传承。     

少林武术套路术语国际化标准研制的参考与借鉴——中英文版《传统少林武术套路集成》刍评

2008年出版的《传统少林武术套路集成(套装上下卷)》(A Compendium of Shaolin-style Traditional Martial Arts),是我国首部全面系统记载少林武术套路招式的英文版专著。该专著作者刘海超素有“少林武术名家”之誉,他以传统佛、儒、道思想精华为主旨,对少林武术战术、战略和武德、武风进行全面系统阐述,融合武术、中医理论与哲学,详解少林武术套路,是我国武术学科学术理论与武术教学实战相结合的重要代表著作之一,是中华武术走向世界可圈可点的专业性译介,对于国内和英语世界武术爱好者不失为一套图文并茂、易于接受的优质教材,也供国内外武术科研工作者之需,其术语研制对推动中国武术术语标准化意义重大。     

武术的教育功能对体育教育专业学生武术综合能力的培养

武术是我国优秀的民族传统体育项目,在高校学校体育教育中占有重要位置。如何更好地发挥武术的教育功能,推动学校武术开展,提高青少年的健康水平,与体育教师的武术综合能力有着密切关系,文章阐述了武术的教育功能,并尝试提出充分利用武术的教育功能培养体育教育专业学生的综合能力。     

礼仪在现代武术中的运用

随着社会经济的发展、全民健身运动计划的提出,越来越多的人走出家门加入锻炼身体的队伍之中.作为具有强身健体功能的体育运动-武术也逐渐受到人们的喜爱.然而以体现武术文化内涵的武术礼仪的发展却忽略了.通过从现代武术礼仪的概念、现代武术礼仪的动作进行论述.表明:现代武术礼仪是指新中国成立以来,习武者在习武过程中遵守的具有浓厚民...     

An analysis of the relationship between hostility and training in the martial arts

Contrasting views and data are available on the issue of whether combative sports facilitate or reduce aggression. In the present study levels of hostility were assessed in two groups of martial arts students using the Buss-Durkee Inventory. Levels of hostility on a variety of the sub-scales were compared with scores from similar samples of participants in a body contact, aggressive but non-combative sport (rugby football) and a competitive sport with no body contact or direct aggression (badminton). When the effects of age and length of training were controlled by use of partial correlation there was no evidence to support group differences in either the combined score from the varied sub-scales of the inventory or the more specific assaultive sub-scale. However, there was evidence to suggest a significant effect of length of training on hostility levels in martial artists. Beginners attracted to the martial arts were more hostile but the hostility declined with the duration of training. No difference was apparent in this respect for students participating in either jui jitsu or karate. It is suggested that such differential effects with respect to length of training may lead to the overall absence of the between-sport differences. The results provide tentative support for the notion that the discipline of the martial arts may reduce assaultive hostility rather than serve as a model for such behaviour, yet support the need for prospective longitudinal studies on intra-individual hostility.     

“锻炼行道,练以成人”:中国求道传统的武术文化实践

求解“何为武术,武术何为”的元问题,需在文化自觉语境中,由中国文化轴心时代的文武分途而教出发,发现当代武术发展的历史根源以及武术人“锻炼行道,练以成人”的文化实践。研究认为,武术人将动作作为求道对象,不仅将拳区分为4种类型,并探索“改变常人拳,三节四梢微观化透视,时空之练”的求道路径,而且在改造身体时变化了气质,终以“武德和功夫”作为“练以成人”的体现。武术人的“锻炼行道,练以成人”不仅完成其“由社会人而武术人”的成人,而且还以其区别于常人、军人、文人的动作方式,作为文化标识之所在、文化认同之基础。     

由中国传统人性文化审视中国武术走向之研究

中国武术是华夏文明长期氤氩滋养而发展起来的传统人体活动方式,承载着中国传统文化积极向上、自强不息的基本精神．在全球经济的快速发展和西方文化强势传播的冲击下,当代中国武术在一定程度上有逐步迷失发展方向的趋势。本文以中国传统人性文化为视角,结合中国武术的文化特征,指出重新审视中国武术走向的重要性与迫切性,旨在为中国武术的发展提供一些理论依据。     

Selection,de-selection and progression in German football talent promotion

Abstract

This study explored to which extent the development of German professional football players is based on early talent identification (TID) and long-term nurture in talent promotion (TP) programmes or on their emergence in the course of repeated procedures of player selection and de-selection in these programmes through childhood and youth. The annual turnover of squad members in national junior teams (2001–2013) and youth elite academies was calculated; national U-team members were followed up with regard to nominations through subsequent seasons and to their success level eventually achieved at senior age; and all current Bundesliga players were analysed retrospectively regarding their earlier involvement in TID/TP programmes. Analyses revealed that the mean annual turnover of squad members was 24.5% (youth academies) and 41.0% (national U-teams), respectively. At any age, the probability of persisting in the programme three years later was <50%. Among current Bundesliga players, the age of recruitment into the TID/TP programme was widely evenly distributed across childhood and youth, respectively. Accordingly, the number of (future) Bundesliga players who were involved in TID/TP was built up continuously through all age categories. The observations suggest that the collective of professional players emerged from repeated procedures of selection and de-selection through childhood and youth rather than from early selection and long-term continuous nurture in TID/TP programmes. The findings are discussed with regard to the uncertainty of TID and of interventions applied to the selected players, and they are related to the individualistic and collectivistic approach in TP.     

从搏击到文化对传统武术的再认识

对武术的整个演进历程进行了分析,认为：早期武术是一门生存自卫术,与世界其他民族的武技没有本质区别;先秦文化的繁荣使武术初具文化特色;魏晋至隋唐时期,武术具有显著的宗教、艺术等文化特征;集中国传统文化之大成的宋明理学,促使武术成为成熟的文化载体。经过近代、现代尤其是当代人的提炼,武术成为了竞技体育,在极大推动武术发展的同时,也使其逐渐脱离了本质,脱离了文化,脱离了大众。当今,武术应返回民间,更好地汲取营养,以图更大发展。     

Olympic samurai: Japanese martial arts between sports and self-cultivation

ABSTRACT

One of the longest-standing debates in the martial arts relates to their being either ‘sports’ or methods of self-cultivation. Traditionalists often ascribe unique spiritual characteristics to the martial arts, while criticising the ‘sportification’ of certain practices. In this view, the martial arts are seen to have declined from ancient ideals and become focused on ‘superficial’ competition and techniques. This paper argues that the supposedly intrinsic connection between martial arts and mental self-cultivation is largely a product of the last 150 years, and developed from the historical context of Japan’s modernisation in the late nineteenth century, as martial arts were codified while experiencing a powerful challenge from the arrival of Western sports. This dynamic was closely related to the development of the nationalistic ideology of bushido, the ‘way of the samurai’, which was frequently invoked by promoters of the martial arts. In this context, intangible elements such as ‘spirit’ were used by martial artists to include and exclude people along lines of gender, nationality, and ethnicity. This paper uses three Tokyo Olympics, 2020, 1964, and the cancelled 1940 games, to examine how the Japanese martial arts were ‘spiritualised’, and to consider the enduring legacy of imperial ideologies.     

对传统尚武村落尚武活动的考察与分析——以湖南新化孟公村为例

运用田野考察、文献资料查阅等研究方法,以湖南新化孟公村为例,对传统尚武活动进行了实地研究,研究目的在于通过个案,找出共性,为民间武术活动在农村开展提供一些理论参考。研究认为,在有着尚武传统的村落,其尚武活动的开展主要是以当地村民喜爱的武术拳种为载体,这些武术拳种对村落民风的形成具有较深影响,这些村落传统尚武活动开展的主要形式虽各具有地域特色,但在形式上基本上大同小异,它们的开展为这些村落社会在二十世纪七、八十年代发展起到了积极的促进作用,但在当前,它们的开展也面临着现代社会环境给它们带来的不利影响,需要引起我们高度关注。