Assessing reflective thinking in solving design problems: The development of a questionnaire

Reflection is a critical factor in solving design problems. Using good methods to observe designers' reflection is essential to inform the design of the learning environments that support the development of design problem‐solving skills. In this study, we have developed and validated a novel self‐reporting questionnaire as an efficient instrument to explore reflection, called Assessing Reflective Thinking in Solving Design Problems (ARTiD). This questionnaire has been developed based on the three‐dimensional model for reflective thinking: the timing, the objects and the levels of reflection. A total of 294 undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of engineering, computer science and instructional design were recruited to participate in one of four iterative, formative tests through which reliability and validity analyses were performed to revise and confirm the questionnaire. Examples of participants' reflection patterns were demonstrated to show the practical value of this questionnaire. In conclusion, the final version of ARTiD was presented as a valid instrument to explore students' reflection for research and educational practice. In addition, we found that ARTiD can be used as an effective learning tool to guide student designers' reflections toward better learning and performance.     

Development of a Questionnaire to Measure the Level of Reflective Thinking

Many courses aim to promote reflective thinking or reflection upon practice, but there is a scarcity of readily usable instruments to determine whether students engage in reflective thinking and, if so, to what extent. This paper reports the development and testing of such an instrument. To ensure validity, the constructs measured were derived from the extensive literature on reflective thinking, particularly the writing of Mezirow. A combination of the literature review and initial testing led to the development of a four-scale instrument measuring four constructs; habitual action, understanding, reflection and critical reflection. The final version of the instrument was tested with a sample of 303 students from eight classes of a health science faculty. The reliability of the scales was established by acceptable Cronbach alpha values. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit to the proposed four-factor structure. Comparison of mean scores between the eight classes showed predicted significant differences on each of the four scales between undergraduate and postgraduate students.     

Enthusiasm vs. experience in mentoring: a comparison of turkish novice and experienced teachers in fulfilling supervisory roles

his study investigates how trainee teachers perceive their supervising teachers’ supervisory competency. Through a questionnaire that was specifically developed for this study and which contained open-ended questions, student teacher candidates were asked to comment on their supervising teachers’ competency in preparation for supervision, instructional planning and reflection, and collegial supervision and effective mentoring. Data for this study was gathered from 690 student teachers who were in their last year in college pursuing a teaching credential. The results indicated that the student teachers rated their supervising teachers’ competency in supervision as poor to partially competent. Although there is no significant relation found between the gender and fulfillment of supervisory duties, the main significant finding was between supervising teachers’ experience in teaching and completion of the supervisory role. The results showed that the younger or less experienced supervising teachers demonstrated better supervisory skills. Furthermore, our results indicated that although experience is important, it should not be the only criterion for selecting supervising teachers for supervisory duty.     

A Behavioral Model for the Practicum Supervision of Counselor Candidates

This article presents a behavioral model of supervisor behavior for the counseling practicum that involves supervisor, counselor, and client. Five identifiable stages in supervision are presented: (a) the initial session, (b) the development of a facilitative relationship, (c) goal identification and determination of supervisory procedures, (d) the use of supervisory techniques and procedures, and (e) termination and follow-up. This supervisory process between supervisor and counselor is related to the counseling process between counselor and client.     

Promoting creativity in PhD supervision: Tensions and dilemmas

In this paper we argue that the processes of collaborative creativity are just as important within the sociocultural context of PhD supervisory practice, as they are in other organizational and educational settings. In order to test this claim a series of interviews with supervisors and students were undertaken to uncover the pedagogic processes used to encourage and support creativity within supervision sessions. The findings from this small-scale study suggest that whilst the more formal instruction and monitoring processes that lead to the acquisition of transferrable research skills are both usefully and necessary aspects of doctoral training, the more open-ended and creative developments required at this level of study should be given equal weight. There needs to be space, time and encouragement for the types of interactions identified here (e.g. informal reflection, relationship building with peers and supervisor, playful exploration and risk taking) as well as mandatory skills development.     

Approaches to learning in professional supervision: supervisee perceptions of processes and outcome

This study investigated supervisees’ perceptions of the learning processes and outcomes of professional supervision. Two hundred and sixty-four psychology graduates involved in the process of professional supervision for registration responded to a mail survey regarding their supervisor's approach to supervision, their own approach to supervision and their perceptions of the overall effectiveness of the process. Findings suggest that professional supervision can be readily conceptualised as a learning relationship. Supervisees’ approaches to supervision comprised the three dimensions of surface-disorganised, evaluation anxiety, and endorsement of supervisor capability. Supervisors’ approaches to supervision were understood by supervisees in terms of facilitative and didactic approaches to learning. A facilitative approach to supervision was associated with enhanced evaluations of supervisor capability and a reduction in supervisee confusion and anxiety. A facilitative, but not a didactic, supervisory approach positively influenced supervisees’ perceptions of the effectiveness of supervision.     

Conceptualizing Organizational Dimensions of Instructional Supervisory Practice: Implications for Professional Learning Environments in Schools

This study explored the organizational nature of the professional learning environments of teachers, administrators, and other peer professionals in schools. A conceptual model of the organizational structure and effects of instructional supervisory practices was developed to guide the empirical investigation. The model is based on an organizational conception of instructional supervision in which the variety of supervisory behaviors, interactions, and decision making engaged in by school personnel contributes to a unique organizational/supervisory (O/S) climate infusing a school's professional learning environment. Six meaningful dimensions of O/S climate were empirically derived. Climate variable linkages to various indices of school effectiveness were posited and explored using quantitative and qualitative methods. The study's qualitative findings revealed additional school-level, organizational context factors which further explicated the O/S climate and professional learning environment constructs and quantitative supervisory climate/effectiveness linkages identified in the study's original conceptual model. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Interactions between child behavior patterns and parent supervision: implications for children's risk of unintentional injury

Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death for children. Prior research has implicated both child behavioral attributes and parent supervisory patterns as risk factors. The present study assessed interactions between these two risk factors and determined whether supervision moderates the relation between child attributes and injury. Mothers completed questionnaire measures of child attributes and supervisory patterns and also recorded how they supervised their young child (2–5 years) at home on each of 10 randomly selected days within a 3-week period. Results provide support for the moderating effect of supervision: Supervision interacted with some child attributes to elevate children's risk of medically attended injury and with other attributes to decrease injury risk. Implications for preventing childhood injuries are discussed.     

A relational model of supervision for applied psychology practice: professional growth through relating and reflecting

Supervision is a critical component of initial training and continuing professional development for applied psychology practitioners, and effective supervision is significantly related to the quality of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee. The core task of supervision is to engage in a relational process that provides containing and security, thus facilitating professional growth through reflection on experience. Two key arguments are proposed in this paper: (i) models that support theory-to-practice connections are essential for both supervisees and supervisors and (ii) models informed by psychological theory that place relating and reflecting at the heart of the supervisory process promote practitioner development and effective outcomes for clients. One model – the Relational Model of Supervision for Applied Psychology Practice (RMSAPP) – is outlined, and the systemic, psychodynamic and attachment lenses privileged within it are explored. The paper concludes with the strengths and challenges of the model, along with suggestions for future research directions.     

The supervisor's influence on workplace learning

Supervisors are often urged by the workplace learning literature to take active roles as facilitators of the learning of their staff. The role that is envisaged is similar to the facilitative role developed in the humanistic traditions of adult education, in which facilitation is supportive but also proactive, challenging and interventionist. However, an exploration of the experiences and concerns of workplace learners raises issues of identity and trust that suggest that such a facilitative supervisory role may not be realistic. This is not to say that supervisors can have no impact on workplace learning; rather, their role is more indirect than direct, and that it is exercised through quite traditional supervisory activities. Issues of identity and trust development for workplace learners will be examined in this paper, and the implications for supervisory action in relation to learning explored. The paper draws on doctoral research with workers new to administrative positions in the public sector.     

Informality,power and relationships in postgraduate supervision: supervising PhD candidates over coffee

A great deal of literature in recent years has focused on the supervisory relationship, yet very little has been written about the nature or content of supervisory meetings, beyond commenting on the frequency and length of meetings. Through semi-structured interviews, informal discussions with colleagues and students, a critical review of literature and personal reflection, this paper explores the salience of coffee for postgraduate supervision. This paper locates supervisions over coffee in reference to contemporary debates about the supervisory relationship (models, styles, tasks and dimensions). Using the concept of ‘third places’ and Misztal's theorisation of informality, it is argued that supervision over coffee conveys a particular supervisory relationship to postgraduate students: one that is incompatible with expert-disciple models or styles of supervision. Instead, supervision over coffee is on neutral territory and on a more informal footing. Finally the paper concludes with discussion about finding a balance between formality and informality in supervision and the development of personal and institutional trust.     

Supervisory Style: Its Relation to the Supervisory Working Alliance and Supervisor Self‐Disclosure

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between supervisor perceptions of their supervisory style and elements of the supervision process, including the supervisory working alliance and supervisor self‐disclosure. Data from 137 counselor supervisors demonstrated a significant positive relationship between attractive, interpersonally sensitive, and task‐oriented supervisory styles and the (a) goals, tasks, and bond components of the supervisory working alliance and (b) frequency of supervisor self‐disclosure. Limitations and implications for counselor supervision theory, research, and practice are addressed.     

Supporting presence in teacher education: The connection between the personal and professional aspects of teaching

This study follows one individual student teacher during a period of one single school year in which she was supported in developing ‘presence’ while teaching. The notion of ‘presence’ was formulated by the teacher herself, and coincides with the growing interest in this aspect in psychology, and in theories about becoming a teacher. In her supervision, the so-called core reflection approach was used, which strongly builds on the concept of presence and on positive psychology. Based on analyses of audio taped supervisory sessions, six stages were identified in the teacher's development. These stages are described and related to theories about positive psychology and core reflection. The supervisor's interventions leading to the transitions between the stages were identified, analysed, and related to key principles of core reflection. It appeared that the teacher's growth not only led to experiencing ‘presence’ while teaching, but also to a greater use of her personal qualities. Taken together, it appeared that after the supervision the teacher was much more ‘in flow’, and that she was more effective as a teacher. In this article, both the teacher's growth and the supervisor's interventions are described in detail, and illustrated using quotations from supervisory sessions, logbooks, and interviews. A case is made for connecting professional and personal aspects in supervising student teachers.     

Negotiating the "Rackety Bridge" — a Dynamic Model for Aligning Supervisory Style with Research Student Development

Postgraduate research student supervision is examined with the aim of developing a model of the supervisory relationship to improve practice by encouraging a more proactive role for students. The term "competent autonomy" is defined and argued to be a universal objective of the PhD. A tentative "supervisor/student alignment model" based on the development of this objective is proposed. It draws upon some features of earlier models but stresses the need for a dynamic alignment of supervisory style with the student's degree of development. Operationalised as a tool and tested empirically, it was found to encourage students to periodically reflect on and discuss their needs as competent autonomy is developed. Feedback is presented from a group of PhD students with whom the tool has been used at approximately 6 monthly intervals for up to three years to deliver supervision aligned to their dynamic needs.     

Making judgments about risk in substantiated cases of supervisory neglect

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine which factors were used by investigators to determine level of risk among substantiated cases of supervisory neglect. The conceptual model included three sets of factors-the severity of the supervision problem, characteristics of the mother (e.g., prior involvement with child protective services (CPS), motivation, substance use) and characteristics of the investigator-as potential explanations for increased risk. METHODS: A case-control design was used to compare 113 mothers whose names were placed on the child abuse registry for substantiated supervisory neglect (higher risk) with 45 mothers whose names were not placed on the registry but who had a substantiated report of supervisory neglect (lower risk). Two readers coded every investigative report. RESULTS: Five out of 14 of the predictors had a unique effect on the investigator's assessment of higher risk in the multivariate analysis: a child was harmed, the mother did not take responsibility for the problem, there was no extenuating circumstance, she was being battered, and she had prior involvement with CPS. There was also an interaction between being battered and the type of supervision problem. When a mother failed to protect her child from a third party, being battered decreased the likelihood that the investigator would place the mother's name on the state's registry. CONCLUSION: More research is needed on specific types of supervision problems to develop a risk assessment instrument for supervisory neglect. Without one, it is difficult to see how investigators and others can be expected to know whether a child is likely to be harmed in the future.     

Towards Identifying Factors Underlying Readiness for Online Learning: An Exploratory Study

To test the potential value of McVay's (2000) Readiness for Online Learning questionnaire for research and practice, the instrument was administered to 107 undergraduate university students drawn from a range of courses in the United States and Australia. The questionnaire was subjected to a reliability analysis and a factor analysis. The instrument fared well in the reliability analysis, and yielded a two-factor structure that was readily interpretable in a framework of existing theory and research. Factors identified were "Comfort with e-learning" and "Self-management of learning." It is suggested that the instrument is useful for both research and practice, but would be enhanced through further work on 5 of the 13 items. Additionally, further work is required to establish predictive validity.     

A Contextual-Functional Meta-Framework for Counselling Supervision

In this paper, an approach to clinical supervision, entitled the Contextual-Functional Meta-Framework (CFM), is developed and articulated, based on a consideration of current literature and the author??s extensive practice experience. First, the context for the development of the CFM, and its formative influences, are examined, followed by a review of its six main components: the administrative context in which supervision takes place; the culture infused supervisory working alliance; nine supervisory functions; the supervisor??s and supervisee??s theory of change; the service delivery system; and the phase of counsellor development. Finally, future avenues for the model??s ongoing development and evaluation are discussed. As a meta-framework for the development of one??s personal approach to supervision, rather than a model of supervision, the CFM provides a transtheoretical heuristic for clinical supervisors to develop their personal approach the supervision.