Androgyny and the Mentoring Role: an empirical study to examine for prominent mentor expectations

abstract

As part of an ongoing research design, we wished to examine how mentors behave whilst in the mentoring role. The starting point for this was a study to examine how mentors felt they were expected to behave in context; that is, an organised educational mentoring situation, as we recognised the importance of situation‐specificity. Prior to empirical study, we theorised that the mentor may be androgynous; or more precisely are able to display high levels of expressive and instrumental behaviour. Seven suppositions were examined. Our findings were that whilst in the role, mentors do indeed feel expected to blend and display high levels of both instrumentality and expressiveness. Further, the levels of expressive behaviour they perceived they were expected to display were significantly higher. The higher levels of expected expressive behaviour is not congruent with the androgyny literature: our samples proved an exception to the ‘masculine supremacy effect’. Also, that mentoring may require high levels of stereotypically feminine behaviour is something that the mass of mentoring literature has not discussed and may warrant further attention. We concluded that the diverse, complex and complicated nature of mentoring is met with expectations to display flexibility and versatility across situations — to take a proactive approach to coping with mentoring situational demands — such is not mitigated by gender. Their reported high expected levels of both expressive and instrumental behaviour are congruent with our theory of the androgynous mentor.     

The Androgynous Mentor: bridging gender stereotypes in mentoring

This paper explores the possibility that a suitable mix of instrumental and expressive personality traits‐the concept of psychological androgyny — are required to allow a complete mentoring relationship. The discussion seeks a solution to a mentoring paradox which arises from the argument that instrumentality is necessary in reaching positions of influence, power, authority and experience ‐from which pool mentors may be selected in organisations ‐yet expressiveness as necessary for mentoring behaviour.

A comment on research into mentoring and psychological androgyny is offered, and this concept is discussed in regard to the experienced mentor combining such instrumental and expressive personality traits. A review of the literature on gender and mentoring is also offered and reveals several causes for concern. However, such literature rarely focuses upon what both genders can do. This paper offers the hypothesis that the experienced mentor will be androgynous‐thus being able to display both instrumentality and expressiveness according to situation‐specific demands.     

PURPOSES AND APPROACHES OF SELECTED MENTORS IN SCHOOL‐BASED MENTORING: A COLLECTIVE CASE STUDY

Over the last decade, community leaders have connected with students through school‐based mentoring (SBM) programs (e.g., adults who mentor at‐risk students). However, research in the area of SBM is only on the cusp of understanding relationship elements for impacting youth. In this collective case study, we examined the perceptions and experiences of 11 selected mentors in dyadic relationships (i.e., mentee and mentor) to understand better ways to retain and to engage mentors for longer‐lasting mentoring relationships, providing a sense of connectedness for students. Specifically, we investigated purposes and approaches of mentoring through the voices and experiences of mentors working with elementary‐aged students in SBM. Results revealed self‐sustaining synergy within the dyads (with little or no program support) and themes of consistency, commitment, spirituality, playfulness, the use of self‐disclosure, creativity, and emphasis on the present. In addition, implications for cross‐cultural and, in particular, cross‐age mentoring are discussed. One exemplar case illustrates specific profile characteristics used to bridge age, gender, and cultural differences.     

Support and Challenge in Learning to Teach: the role of the mentor

The increased emphasis on school‐based programmes as part of initial teacher education has resulted in renewed efforts to forge more effective partnerships between higher education institutions and schools. The University of Bath has established a mentor development programme to ensure that subject mentors have an opportunity to examine ways to engage novice teachers in critical reflection about their practice while providing the support and challenge necessary to help them develop as teachers. This study is based on experienced mentors’ and their perspective on their work with novice teachers and it is a follow‐up to earlier research based on Daloz’ model (1986, Effective Teaching and Mentoring, San Francisco, Jossey Bass) of support and challenge. It examines an emerging mentoring pedagogy through which experienced mentors attempt to engage novice teachers in shaping their own vision of teaching. Three mentor profiles are discussed—the laissez‐faire, the collaborative and the imperial mentor.     

An Exploration of the Relationships between Mentor Recruitment,the Implementation of Mentoring,and Mentors’ Attitudes

Mentoring of new teachers is generally examined from the viewpoint of the mentees. In the present study, mentoring is explored based on reports from mentors within the context of the Israeli induction program. Recruitment variables (selection and training) were examined in relation to mentoring implementation (frequency, initiation, regularity, and content), and mentors’ perceptions and attitudes (towards matching, role conflict, and the mentoring experience). The relationships of gender and school level to implementation and attitudes were also examined. Data were collected by a questionnaire from a national sample of 118 mentors and through in-depth interviews with 14 mentors. Findings indicate that mentor selection, training, gender, and school level can have important implications for how mentors function and how they perceive mentoring.     

Examining gender similarity and mentor’s supervisory status in mentoring relationships

This study examined the influence of mentor’s status (supervisor vs. non‐supervisor) and gender similarity (homogeneous vs. diversified) of mentor–protégé dyads on protégé’s perception of mentoring functions and outcomes. We collected and analyzed data from 217 mentor–protégé dyads comprised of working professionals from a variety of industries. Results of MANCOVA indicated that supervisory mentors provided more career development functions than non‐supervisory mentors. Mentor–protégé gender similarity and mentor’s supervisory status interacted to influence psychosocial support, career development, and career satisfaction. Key findings are discussed in terms of implications for future research and career counseling in industry and education.     

Learning to mentor: unravelling routine practice to develop adaptive mentoring expertise

While studies have shown that mentoring is central to new teacher development, few investigations have examined what mentors learn about themselves as mentors. The purpose of the study was to illuminate mentor learning. The article reports on two case studies that investigated the development of mentoring expertise over a two-year period. During this period, the two mentor participants were engaged in a professional development intervention focused on fostering mentoring expertise. Data sources included transcribed professional conversations, interviews and action research documentation. Analysis of these data found that despite good intentions, mentors’ preconceptions of their role were difficult to change. Where substantive change was evident, there was a conceptual shift from a focus on mentee and student learning to include mentor learning. The study suggests that the development of mentor expertise is complex and cannot be assumed. The complexity associated with letting go of deeply ingrained beliefs and practices to develop mentoring expertise is illuminated in the dynamic interaction between the school context, the mentor’s preconceptions and re-conceptualisation of their role along with the on-going assessment of professional learning opportunities.     

Sometimes a novice and sometimes an expert: mentors’ professional expertise as revealed through their stories of critical incidents

Drawing on the methodology of critical incidents, this study sets out to explore the perspectives that 20 experienced in‐service mentors in Israel adopt towards critical incidents in their work, as they account for how they reason about and act upon these incidents. Mentors’ stories of critical incidents shed light on the complex nature of mentors’ professional expertise, reflected in the finding that experienced mentors’ reasoning and behaviour constantly fluctuates between a novice and an expert stage, depending upon the nature of the situation and the type of mentor–mentee interaction that the mentor is confronted with. The study supports the more dynamic, discontinuous and interactionist view of the acquisition of expertise, highlighting the regressions and progressions that play out when experienced professionals take up an additional role, such as in the passage from teaching to mentoring.     

Mentoring in Action on a Primary PGCE Course

Abstract

School‐based mentors are taking increased responsibility for the initial training of student teachers as a result of government policy to lengthen the proportion of time students spend in school during their training. The role of the mentor is critical in the development of a partnership model of initial teacher education (ITE), involving close collaboration between higher education institutions (HEIs) and schools. This article draws on our research into the practice of mentoring on the one‐year Primary Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) at the Chichester Institute. Through observations of mentoring sessions at school we analyse the process of mentoring in action. Drawing on mentor observations and interviews with mentors, students and college (link) tutors we examine the diverse nature of mentoring and identify some of the common qualities of good mentoring practice.     

Reading a mentoring situation: one aspect of learning to mentor

This paper describes and interprets the meanings that one novice mentor attributes to ‘reading a mentoring situation’, an organizing metaphor for describing how one experienced teacher of English learns to analyze one aspect of her learning in talking to mentor teachers of English throughout her first year of induction into mentoring. The study revealed that learning to become a mentor is a conscious process of induction into a different teaching context and does not ‘emerge’ naturally from being a good teacher of children. Thus, at an operational level, teacher education programs should prepare teachers for this passage by encouraging the dissemination of in-service courses that allow novice mentors the opportunity to articulate the construction of their new role. Such courses can be structured as ‘learning conversations’ whereby mentors are encouraged to reflect on their roles in the company of fellow mentors, mediated by an experienced mentor of mentors.     

Identifying Mentoring Practices for Developing Effective Primary Science Teaching

A literature‐based survey gathered 331 final‐year preservice teachers' perceptions of their mentoring in primary science education from nine Australian universities. Data were analysed within five factors proposed for mentoring (i.e., Personal Attributes, System Requirements, Pedagogical Knowledge, Modelling, and Feedback). Results indicated that the majority of mentors (primary teachers) did not provide specific mentoring in primary science, particularly in the science teaching practices associated with the factors System Requirements, Pedagogical Knowledge, and Modelling. This study argues that mentors may require further education to learn how to mentor specifically in primary science, and proposes a specific mentoring intervention as a way forward for developing the mentor's mentoring and teaching of primary science.     

The Effect of Mentor Intervention Style in Novice Entrepreneur Mentoring Relationships

In this study, we aimed to determine whether mentor intervention styles influence benefits gained by novice entrepreneurs through their mentoring relationship. An empirical study conducted with 360 mentees who had received mentoring services shows that an intervention style which combines a maieutic approach with mentor involvement produced the best results. This style made it possible for the mentor to play a more decisive role with the mentee and also fostered the development of certain mentee outcomes. Mentoring program directors can make their mentors aware of the importance of their mentoring style to maximize outcomes for novice entrepreneurs.     

Peer mentoring for first‐year teacher education students: the mentors’ experience

Universities worldwide are developing peer mentoring programmes to assist first‐year students’ transition into university life. Awareness of the mentees’ experiences in the mentoring programme – the successes and challenges – contributes to ongoing planning for successful transition for first‐year students. Also, understanding the mentors’ experiences can contribute to the success of the programme and, more importantly, can lead to strong self efficacy for the mentors. This qualitative study appraises a mentoring programme for first‐year undergraduate students from the mentors’ perspective. The mentors’ experiences, both positive and negative, are discussed and a relational model of mentoring is presented. The results of this inquiry have implications for the development of future mentoring programmes, particularly in terms of mentor recruitment and preparation, if first‐year students are to be effectively oriented and supported in their transition to university study.     

Experiences of beginning teachers in a school‐based mentoring program in Sweden

Even though teacher education has been successful in preparing students for their future profession, the classroom reality can differ greatly from the inservice training. Many novice teachers therefore find the transition from student teacher to inservice teacher overwhelming To support beginning teachers, mentoring programs—where more experienced teachers support novice teachers—have become commonplace in many schools worldwide. In Sweden, mentoring for beginning teachers has been a frequent feature of support since 2001. This study, conducted in Sweden, examines seven novice teachers and the impact the mentoring process had upon them during their first‐year teaching. Based on interviews, it was found that these experienced both professional and personal support from their mentors. The study also showed the significance of observant leaders within the mentorship program following up on the development of the mentor–mentee relationship.     

The Importance of Structure in Providing Uniform Quality in Mentoring/Induction Programs

This case‐study research investigated mentroing interactions at five elementary schools within a district‐wide, state‐mandated induction program. The subjects of the study were five mentor teachers and their five first‐year colleagues. A literal replication of cases described both the objective and subjective features of mentor/first‐year teacher interactions. Typologies were developed to illustrate types of interactions and mentoring styles. Results indicate that school and district administration, in order to facilitate successful mentoring, should develop a formally structured approach to the selection, training and assignment of mentors.     

Mentoring and Student Persistence in College: A Study of the Washington State Achievers Program

Using survey data on the third cohort of scholarship recipients in the Washington State Achievers (WSA) program, this study first examined how the assignment of college mentor and student engagement in mentoring vary based on student and institutional characteristics and then examined the relationship between mentor assignment and different mentoring aspects of the WSA program and student persistence in college. The results from this project indicated that Asian American students were more likely to have an assigned college mentor and that Hispanic students were more likely than White students to turn to their college mentors for support and encouragement and had a higher level of perceived importance of their overall experiences with mentors. Among all WSA recipients, having an assigned college mentor was positively related to the probability of persisting in college; among those who had an assigned college mentor, the probability of persisting was positively associated with the extent to which the recipients turn to mentors for support and encouragement and with their perceived importance of experiences with mentors.     

So You Want to Be a Mentor? An Analysis of Mentor Competencies

As the need for mentors continues to expand in order to meet organizational and programmatic needs, so does the need for quality mentoring. Although sometimes an immediate need for quantity may foreshadow quality, this should not be the case when utilizing mentoring to achieve goals. Faculty mentor competencies are analyzed to demonstrate the importance and need for competent mentors in formal mentoring programs, specifically those in higher education. Correlation analysis is used to assess the relationship between research-based mentor competencies and Ronald E. McNair Program goals. Findings support the need for mentor competency assessment, usage of competent mentors, additional development of mentor competency models, and further study.     

The working contract between the on‐site mentor and school counseling students during internship—contents and processes

This study focuses on the working contract between the on‐site mentor and school‐based counseling interns within the specific context of the on‐site mentoring role, underlining the importance of the contract as a framework for empowering internship and mentoring. Guidelines concerning the main contents and processes needed for outlining an effective contract are presented. A study that examined expectations of mentors and interns regarding the components of the contract is presented with the aim of illustrating the creation of a data‐driven basis for contracting. Four similar broad categories were located, although differences between mentors and interns in each category appeared. Implications of the working contract for the enhancement of the mentorship relationship and for the professional growth of mentors and interns are discussed.     

Developing Mentors: An Analysis of Shared Mentoring Practices

Understanding how experienced teachers share and articulate effective mentoring practices can guide efforts to prepare quality mentors. This qualitative study focused on mentoring practices within a teacher-designed student-teaching program conceptualized while the mentor teachers within the program were students in a graduate-level mentoring course and implemented upon the mentors’ completion of their graduate studies. Data sources included interviews and field notes from meetings with mentors and student teachers. The results detail specific mentoring practices: explicit instruction through scaffolding, developing the whole teacher, student-teacher-directed learning, fostering student teachers’ individual practice, explicit mentoring of one another, and reflecting on mentoring. These practices were enabled by program structures such as mentor meetings, an online forum, and mentors’ observation of all student teachers in the program.     

Receiving as well as giving: mentors' perceptions of their professional development in one teacher induction program

Although many studies examine benefits to the mentees, this study examined the growth and development of the mentors in the context of a particular teacher induction program, the University of Missouri Teaching Fellowship Program. This program is unique in that mentors are released from classroom duties to mentor two fellows, conduct professional development in their schools and work with the university. First, second and third‐year mentors were interviewed in focus groups. Results indicated that mentors believed their professional development included: relearning, seeing a bigger picture, expanding their roles, gaining insights about the process of mentoring and understanding the impact of the program on themselves. Data suggest that having various duties encourages these mentors to better understand the complexity of schooling, which increases their leadership potential and gives them more confidence. Also, mentoring is somewhat developmental; it must be learned by engaging in it and needs to be consistently supported. Implications for existing mentoring programs are discussed.