Getting Inside the Black Box: Examining How the Operation of Charter Schools Affects Performance

In recent years, a series of articles have examined the performance of charter schools with mixed results. Some of this research has shown that charter school performance varies by charter type or the age of the school (Bifulco &; Ladd, 2006 Bifulco, R. and Ladd, H. 2006. The impact of charter schools on student achievement: Evidence from North Carolina. Education Finance and Policy, 1: 50–90. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Buddin &; Zimmer, 2005 Buddin, R. and Zimmer, R. 2005. A closer look at charter school student achievement. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 24: 351–372. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Hanushek, Kain, &; Rivkin, 2002 Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J. F., &; Rivkin, S. G. (2002). The impact of charter schools on academic achievement. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved May 19, 2006, from http://http://www.nber.org/～confer/2002/hiedf02/KAIN.pdf  [Google Scholar]; Sass, 2006 Sass, T. R. 2006. Charter schools and student achievement in Florida. Education Finance and Policy, 1: 91–122. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, this research has not examined the school attributes that lead to high- or low-achieving charter schools. In this article, we examine how student achievement varies with school operational features using student-level achievement and survey data for charter and a matched-set of traditional public schools from California. We did not find operational characteristics that were consistently related with student achievement, but we did identify some features that are more important at different grade levels or in charter schools versus in traditional public schools. We also examined the relationship between greater autonomy within schools, which is a major tenet of the charter movement, and student achievement and found very little evidence that greater autonomy leads to improved student achievement.     

Engaging with parents: the relationship between school engagement efforts,social class,and learning

Using data from the U.S. Department of Education's (2000) Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), this study investigates the relationship between school efforts to engage parents, average socioeconomic status (SES) of families within a school, and kindergarteners' end-of-year reading and mathematics achievement. Drawing from Epstein's (2001 Epstein, J.L. 2001. School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.  [Google Scholar]) parent involvement framework, the 4 types of engagement efforts explored are intended to promote communication, parent volunteering, parent influence in school decision making, and parenting skills. We apply multilevel methods to explore the impact of schools' efforts to engage parents on student achievement. Our findings indicate certain types of school efforts to engage parents influence achievement. Depending on average school SES, efforts to promote volunteering has a differential impact on reading achievement, efforts to involve parents in school decision making has a differential impact on mathematics achievement, and efforts to increase communication and promote parenting skills have a differential impact on reading and mathematics achievement.     

Equity Traps Redux: Inequitable Access to Foreign Language Courses for African American High School Students

Although much of the current educational research literature on achievement gaps has focused on core curricular areas in public schools, few have focused on racially identifiable gaps in non-core areas such as high school foreign languages. These achievement, and thus advancement, gaps often result in the under-representation of students of color in higher level foreign language classes. This can have long-range negative consequences for students, such as lacking the foreign language credits needed for admission into major universities. Thus, in this qualitative study, we researched the perceptions of teachers, counselors, and school leaders at a racially diverse urban high school in central Texas concerning the enrollment, achievement, and advancement of African American students in high school foreign language courses. The results indicate that equity traps—deficit views, racial erasure, and paralogical beliefs and behaviors—advanced over a decade ago (McKenzie &; Scheurich, 2004 McKenzie, K. B., &; Scheurich, J. J. (2004). Equity traps: A useful construct for preparing principals to lead schools that are successful with racially diverse students. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(5), 601–632.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) are continuing and even thriving among teachers, counselors, and school leaders in public schools. These equity traps contribute to the foreign language achievement gap, resulting in diminished educational opportunities for African American students. Moreover, we propose that an additional equity trap is at play—organizational constraints—which are the structural obstacles that serve to abet and perpetuate the negative beliefs, behaviors, attitudes, and assumptions exposed in the original equity traps. We conclude this article with recommendations for policy makers and practitioners and offer direction for future research.     

Time to go back to the drawing board: organisation of primary school reading development in South Africa

The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2006 findings highlighted concerns about reading literacy teaching quality in South African primary schools (Howie et al., 2007 Howie, S.J., Venter, E., Van Staden, S., Zimmerman, L., Long, C., Scherman, V. and Archer, E. 2007. Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2006 summary report. South African children's reading literacy achievement, Pretoria, South Africa: Centre for Evaluation and Assessment, University of Pretoria.  [Google Scholar]). In response, the national Department of Education (DoE, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c, 2008d) has emphasised instructional practice improvement. However, little emphasis has been placed on the role of school organisation in learners’ reading success or failure. This article presents school organisation findings from a mixed methods study that explored South African Grade 4 teachers’ instruction practices and schooling conditions for reading literacy development. The analysis considered is based on the reclassification of the PIRLS 2006 sample according to class achievement levels on the PIRLS benchmarks and instructional language profiles. Findings from the PIRLS 2006 school questionnaire data are reported together with findings from case studies to illustrate differences and similarities in school organisation for reading literacy across a range of low- and high-performing schools.     

Exploring School Improvement in Hong Kong Secondary Schools

Scholars have increasingly sought to understand how the process of school improvement differs among schools operating in different school levels, conditions, and contexts. Using Rosenholtz's (1985 Rosenholtz, S. 1985. Effective schools: Interpreting the evidence. American Journal of Education, 93: 352–388. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) conception of “moving” and “stuck” schools as a framework for thinking about school improvement, this study examines the learning outcomes of 39 Hong Kong secondary schools over a 3-year period. We examine whether features of leadership and school capacity differed with respect to these learning outcomes within the sample of moving and stuck schools. This research in Hong Kong has identified several factors that appear to synergistically contribute to differences in patterns of improvement in learning across different subjects in both moving and stuck schools. These factors include resource management of principals and school capacity in terms of professional learning community; workload of teachers; alignment, coherence, and structure; and resource capacity. This study extends the research on leadership and capacity building as a means of school improvement, in the process elaborating on their impact within a non-Western society.     

The barriers to achievement for White/Black Caribbean pupils in English schools

Pupils of White and Black Caribbean descent make up the largest category of mixed heritage pupils in the United Kingdom. As a group they are at risk of underachieving and are proportionally over‐represented in school exclusions. Yet little is known to date about the barriers to their achievement. The common‐sense explanation for their underachievement is often in relation to the perception that mixed‐heritage people are more likely to have ‘identity problems’ and low self‐esteem because of their mixed backgrounds. In some cases, this view is further compounded by low teacher expectations associated with the socio‐economic background and household structure of some mixed heritage pupils. By drawing on qualitative data from recent research, ¹ 1. See Tikly et al. (2004 Tikly, L., Caballero, C., Haynes, J. and Hill, J. 2004. Understanding the educational needs of mixed heritage pupils, London: DfES.  [Google Scholar]). View all notes this article will explore the barriers to achievement faced by White/Black Caribbean pupils in English schools. We argue that although White/Black Caribbean pupils are likely to experience a similar set of barriers to achievement as Black Caribbean pupils, there are important distinctions to be made. The specific barriers to achievement identified for White/Black Caribbean pupils derive from socio‐economic disadvantage, low teacher expectation linked to misunderstandings of mixed heritage identities and backgrounds, and the behavioural issues and attitudes towards achievement linked to peer group pressures.     

Exploring the ‘digital disconnect’ between net‐savvy students and their schools

Educational commentators have long feared a ‘digital disconnection’ between emerging generations of technology‐rich students accustomed to high levels of Internet use and their technology‐poor schools. Yet few studies have empirically examined the existence and potential implications of such a disconnect from the students' perspective. The present paper replicates Levin and Arafeh's (2002 Levin, D. and Arafeh, S. 2002. The digital disconnect: the widening gap between internet‐savvy students and their schools, Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project.  [Google Scholar]) US study which solicited online stories from students detailing how they used the Internet for school. Responses from 84 UK secondary school students show that just over half felt restricted in their Internet use at school. Unlike the original US study, the primary disconnect between UK Internet‐using students and their schools was not one of physical access but the restriction of their Internet use through school rules and content filters, firewalls and other technologies of control. Whilst some students displayed frustration and disenchantment, most gave measured and sometimes sympathetic views of their schools' less‐than‐perfect information technology provision. As such, many of our students were well aware of a digital disconnect but displayed a pragmatic acceptance rather than the outright alienation from school that some commentators would suggest.     

Peer acceptance of students with and without inclusion experience towards students with special needs in unisex schools of Tehran

This study assessed the level of peer acceptance towards students with disabilities in schools of Tehran, Iran (schools are all unisex in this country). The sample included 502 elementary school students in grades three through five (9–11 years old) who had a classmate with hearing impairment or physical disability (motor disability), and 120 boys and girls from schools without inclusive classrooms. Peer acceptance was measured through the use of the translated version of the Acceptance Scale developed by Voeltz (1980 Voeltz, L.M. 1980. Children's attitudes toward handicapped peers. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 84, no. 5: 455–464.[PubMed] , [Google Scholar]) which proved to be highly reliable (α = .83). The following factors were taken into consideration: (1) type of school, (2) nature of disability, and (3) gender. The findings with regard to the overall comparison between the two types of schools indicated that there was a significant difference between the two in favour of schools with inclusive classrooms (z = ?7.24, p < .001). The between-school comparison tests considering the type of disability and gender indicated that both of these factors do play a significant role in the degree to which his/her peers accept a student with disability. Nature of possible factors impacting the obtained differences in the results is discussed. The inclusion is young in this country and lots have to be done in this area; the outcomes from this study help provide a stronger research base which is vital for informed planning and expansion of future inclusive education efforts in the country.     

Mathematics Achievement in the Netherlands and Appropriateness of the TIMSS Mathematics Test

Evaluators are frequently asked to assess the effectiveness of school programs implemented to improve academic achievement. School connectedness has been shown to be directly related to academic achievement (McNeely, Nonnemaker, &; Blum, 2002 McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M. and Blum, R. W. 2002. Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of School Health, 72: 138–146. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and is therefore of interest to evaluators. The construct of school connectedness has been shown to consist of 3 elements: connectedness to adults in schools, connectedness to peers, and connectedness to the school (Karcher &; Lee, 2002 Karcher, M. J. and Lee, Y. 2002. Connectedness among Taiwanese middle school students: A validation study of the Hemingway Measure of Adolescent Connectedness. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3: 92–114. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This paper reports the psychometric properties and factor analyses findings from a School Connectedness Scale (SCS) given to adolescents in 2 very different high schools in the Northeast, one a large urban school and one a medium-sized suburban school. The results indicate that the SCS is highly reliable with a stable factor structure across diverse populations. The broad applications of use for the instrument are discussed.     

Do School Segregation and School Resources Explain Region-of-Origin Differences in the Mathematics Achievement of Immigrant Students? 1

Levels and Dronkers (2006 Dronkers, J. and Wanner, R. A. 2006. Waarom verdienen immigranten minder? Effecten van immigratiebeleid en arbeidsmarktkenmerken [Why do immigrants earn less? Effects of immigration policies and labour market characteristics]. Tijdschrift voor Arbeidsvraagstukken, 22: 379–394.  [Google Scholar]) showed that educational achievement differs between immigrant students from different regions of origin (Latin America, Northern Africa, and Western Asia). This follow-up paper establishes whether these differences in educational achievement between immigrant students from different regions of origin can be explained by school segregation, whether along ethnic or socioeconomic lines. Ethnic and socioeconomic school segregation have a negative influence on the scholastic achievement of all students, although the impact of socioeconomic school segregation is greater than that of ethnic school segregation. Ethnic school segregation affects the scholastic outcomes of native and immigrant students from some regions of origin more than those of immigrant students from other regions. The analysis shows that neither ethnic, nor socioeconomic, school segregation explains the lower mathematics achievement of immigrant students from Latin America, Northern Africa, and Western Asia.     

The Chimera of Choice: Gentrification,School Choice,and Community

This study investigates school choice in a gentrified urban context and examines the ways in which school choice as rhetoric creates false perceptions, how school-choice policies can betray the very principle they espouse, and how choice (while sought after by many) can undermine community. As school choice continues to expand and gain traction politically, it is increasingly important to understand the effects it has on a variety of populations and how the rhetoric surrounding the policy does not correspond with the lived realities on the ground. This research borrows the concept from psychology and economics of “the paradox of choice” (Schwartz, 2004 Schwartz, B. (2004). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. New York, NY: Ecco. [Google Scholar]) and applies it to school choice to demonstrate some of the negative influences of choice on parents and their views of schooling. This research calls into question one of the major arguments for the expansion of school choice—that it provides all parents the opportunity to choose the best fit for their child—by demonstrating that in actual practice choice does not meet parents’ expectation that they are in control of their child’s educational options, regardless of their class background. In this case study the choice system results in a lack of agency, anger and hostility, discontent with schooling options, and an undermining of community connections. Although a number of families do believe they had a choice and were satisfied with their child's school options, or became staunch advocates for their local district schools, the choice landscape still creates tensions.     

The Necessity of Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the Schools∗

The shift in the demographic data highlights the growth in minority, second language learner, and economically disadvantaged student populations that traditionally have been underserved in public schools (Marshall and Oliva 2006 Marshall, C. and Oliva, M. 2006. Leadership for social justice: Making revolutions in education, Boston: Pearson.  [Google Scholar]). The purpose of this discussion is to explore the leadership praxis of four female secondary school leaders faced with challenges of social justice, democracy, and equity in their schools. The principals could be characterized as stewards of social justice in their school communities.     

Beating the Odds: Exploring the 90/90/90 Phenomenon

This article presents a case study of one high performing high poverty campus serving students of color in South Central Texas. The researchers utilized the criteria for 90/90/90 schools established by Douglas Reeves (2004 Reeves, D. 2004. Accountability in action: A blueprint for learning organizations, Englewood, CA: Advanced Learning Press.  [Google Scholar]). In order to meet these criteria, schools had to have the following characteristics: 90% or more of the student body had to be non-Anglo, 90% or more of the students had to qualify for free or reduced lunch, and achievement testing was mastered at rates of 90% or greater. Researchers conducted an initial examination of every public school within a 16,631 square mile area utilizing these criteria. The results yielded 15 schools that met this standard at least once between the years 2006–2010. Only one school met the criteria in each of these years. Panel interviews, focus groups, site visits, and individual follow up interviews were conducted to glean information on the characteristics of this high performing campus, the results of which are presented herein.     

Creating optimal work environments: exploring teacher flow experiences

The purpose of this article is to provide a new perspective on the intricacies of the work life in schools that motivate and satisfy teachers. The authors review the literature related to the improvement of school environments and the concept of ‘flow’ as defined by Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (1990 Csikszentmihalyi M 1990 Flow: the psychology of optimal experience (New York, Harper and Row)  [Google Scholar]). He describes flow as a ‘state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at a great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it’ (p. 4). These experiences when applied to classrooms have the potential of enhancing teachers' work environments and increasing their effectiveness, thereby increasing student achievement. A review of research over several years indicates that the frequency of principals' classroom visits predicts teacher flow experiences in the following areas: (a) teacher self‐efficacy, (b) teacher‐perceived school efficacy, (c) teacher‐perceived efficacy of other teachers, (d) teacher‐perceived organizational effectiveness, and (e) teacher‐perceived efficacy of evaluations and professional development programs. Each of these those variables is discussed and suggestions incorporated so administrators can build work environments where teachers have greater opportunities to experience flow.     

The Role of Collective Efficacy in Closing Student Achievement Gaps: A Mixed Methods Study of School Leadership for Excellence and Equity

Previous research demonstrates that collective efficacy positively predicts students' academic achievement (e.g., Bandura, 1993 Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117–148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Goddard et al., 2000 Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., &; Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2000). Collective teacher efficacy: Its meaning, measure, and effect on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 479–507. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312037002479[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, unaddressed by the current literature is whether collective efficacy also works to reduce inequity by closing achievement gaps. To learn about the operation of collective efficacy, we designed a mixed-methods study, situated in the elementary and middle schools of one large urban district in Texas. Hierarchal linear modeling was employed to model the degree to which collective efficacy explained differences among schools in student mathematics achievement and the Black-White achievement gap. We also drew upon focus group data collected at 6 schools. We found that collective efficacy was associated with an increase in mathematics achievement as well a 50% reduction in the academic disadvantage experienced by Black students. Focus groups revealed the importance of school principals in supporting teacher collaboration and peer observation as well as a sustained focus on instructional improvement.     

School Psychologists as Systems-Level Consultants: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Since its inception, large-scale school reform has been an integral part of the U.S. educational system. Although school reform is commonplace, educators continue to grapple with how to bring about effective systems-level change. School-based consultants (e.g., school psychologists) are in an ideal position to help facilitate the implementation and evaluation of systems-level reform to ensure substantive change (see Illback, 2014 Illback, R. J. (2014). Organizational development and change facilitation in school settings: Theoretical and empirical foundations. In W. P. Erchul & S. N. Sheridan (Eds.), Handbook of research in school consultation (2nd ed., pp. 276–303). New York, NY: Routledge. [Google Scholar]). However, there is a paucity of research on how school psychologists can serve as systems-level consultants to actualize reform. Therefore, the purpose of this double issue is to identify high-quality research that demonstrates the implementation of school-based, systems-level reform in which school psychologists were instrumental in working with other professionals. The articles represent a wide range of school reforms that are occurring across diverse school contexts and collectively address implications for future research, training, and practice.     

“Mind the gap”: cultural revitalisation and educational change

The success or failure of a school reform can be measured by whether the reform has become an accepted, effective, and sustainable part of the school's culture. For example, as the National Middle School Association (2003 National Middle School Association. 2003. Research and resources in support of “This we Believe”, Westerville, OH: Author.  [Google Scholar]) argued, “new programs must become integral to the school culture” (p. 11) before a school can call itself a “middle” school. But how can a school monitor its progress, and at what point can a school claim that a new reform or new programme has become part of its culture? Wallace's revitalisation theory (1956), Hall and Hord's Processural Structure (1986) and Hall, Wallace, and Dossett's Concerns-Based Adoption Model (1973) are used to describe the cultural revitalisation taking place with the introduction of middle schooling into Australia and specifically within 3 Queensland middle schools. Results have highlighted gaps and tension points that need to be resolved before any widespread cultural transformation can be claimed.     

School–Community Partnerships,Friend or Foe? The Doublespeak of Community With Educational Partnerships

In recent reform efforts, school–community partnerships have been touted as a means for promoting student success (Decker, Decker, &; Brown 2007 Decker, L.E., Decker, V.A., &; Brown, P.M. (2007). Diverse partnerships for student success: Strategies and tools to help school leaders. Lanham, MD: Rowman &; Littlefield Education. [Google Scholar]; Epstein 2010 Epstein, J.L. (2010). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 92, 81–96.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) and meeting student needs (Hands 2010 Hands, C.M. (2010). Why collaborate? The differing reasons for secondary school educators' establishment of school–community partnerships. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21, 189–207.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Yet, despite any accolades, the motives and results of school–community partnerships are contested. Gary Anderson (1998 Anderson, G. (1998). Toward authentic participation: Deconstructing the discourses of participatory reforms in education. 715 American Educational Research Journal, 35, 571–603.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) points out that partnerships tend to be designed to graft members into prior objectives and goals instead of being designed to facilitate staff members in working together to redefine goals. Auerbach (2010 Auerbach, S. (2010). Beyond coffee with the principal: Toward leadership for authentic school–family partnerships. Journal of School Leadership, 20, 728–757. [Google Scholar]) echoes this concern, suggesting that the literature regarding school partnerships focuses primarily on academic achievement while operating under “limited school agendas or mandates for collaboration” which do little to promote “socially just” schools (p. 729). And, schools are egregiously unjust. Thus, in this article, I first evaluate the school–community partnership in a new light by broadly conceptualizing how community exists as a term within the public education system and considering the impact of the historical situatedness of communities and political lines on renderings of community. Second, I offer an understanding of how school–community partnerships are discussed in terms of doublespeak, illustrating how the very word community can be employed across a spectrum of different meanings, interpretations, and implications. Last, I argue that community partnerships have been promoted as educational reform with little prospect of challenging meta-narratives that tell a story of who has something to offer to our schools and who does not.     

THE CHESTER CASE

Broad (1999) Broad, B. 1999. “Facing our professional others: Border crossing in teacher education”. In Preparing a nation's teachers: Models for English and foreign language programs, Edited by: Franklin, P., Laurence, D. E. and Welles, E. B. 373–379. New York: The Modern Language Association of America.  [Google Scholar] observed that “troubled borders crisscross the geography of teacher preparation in English” (p. 373), calling for collaboration where preparation is a university responsibility (Gregorian, 2001 Gregorian, V. 2001. Teacher education must become colleges' central preoccupation. August172001. The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp.B7–B8.  [Google Scholar]). This research documents a three-year complex case study that addressed the question: What happens when English, education, and high school faculty cross borders to prepare secondary English teachers to teach in urban schools? This study looked at faculty mentors and preservice teacher mentees as they collaborated on multi-leveled projects to improve teacher preparation of secondary English teachers. Interventions included collaborative seminars, collaborative mentoring, and individual mentoring of preservice English teachers by English, education, and high school faculty. Results indicate that interventions challenged biases of stakeholders, enhanced the quality of teacher preparation, and revised instructional practices of university English and education faculty and preservice teachers. Results indicate that mentees incorporated suggestions made by mentors that reinforced pedagogical content knowledge. Most mentees regarded content mentors favorably, noting that their focus of observation was different from those of clinical supervisors and cooperating teachers. English and education mentors assimilated changes in personal pedagogy based on observations and discussions with urban high school teachers. Such discussions also challenged personal beliefs about urban students and schools. Content mentors also adjusted syllabi to include materials used in high school curricula. The implication of this study is that “crossing borders” improves and alters how university faculty can better prepare preservice teachers.