The emergence of openness: How and why firms adopt selective revealing in open innovation

Open innovation is often facilitated by strong intellectual property rights (IPRs), but it may also function, and even be boosted, when firms deliberately waive some of their IPRs. Extant literature has pointed out the potential benefits of such behavior, but falls short of explaining what triggers firms to practice it in the first place and to maintain or extend it. Since the waiving of IPRs runs counter to common views on strategy and competition and to engrained practices, this is a non-trivial question. To address it, we conduct an empirical study in a segment of the computer component industry which traditionally has taken a rather proprietary stance. With the advent of the open source operating system Linux, firms increasingly waived their IPRs on software drivers. We trace and analyze this process using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Our results indicate that component makers went through a learning process, which led some to realize how selectively waiving IPRs may be beneficial for their business. We uncover customer demand pull as the initial trigger and observe how a positive feedback loop sets in subsequently, leading to a further increase in the use of selective revealing. Overall, we find that openness develops into a new dimension of competition. We discuss the implication of our findings for research on open innovation and highlight how they impact managers in practice.     

数学教学要注重与其他学科的联系

在职业教育中数学课是一门必不可缺的基础课程，将所学的数学知识融进其他科学领域，突出介绍与专业有关的实际应用，体现数学为专业课奠定基础，为专业课服务的思想。     

The emergence of S&T indicators: why did governments supplement statistics with indicators?

Science and technology (S&T) indicators are widely used in policy documents as well as in science and technology studies. This paper traces their origins and shows that it was the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that first imagined and developed science and technology indicators. In the 1960s, the debate on technological gaps between the United States and Europe gave the OECD the opportunity to develop the first world-wide indicators on science and technology. The National Science Foundation (NSF) followed in the 1970s and improved the methodology of indicators on science and technology with its publication entitled Science Indicators. Science and technology indicators remain contested however, because centered on inputs rather than outputs, and because preoccupied mainly with the economic dimension of science and technology.     

谈数学语言的学习

数学语言是体现数学思维特点的特殊语言，它的特点是：简炼、严密、精确、抽象化等。在数学语言的学习过程中，我们要特别注意数学语言的“迁移”性和文字语言、符号(式子)语言、图形语言三种语言的转换，加深对数学语言的理解。     

The emergence of a knowledge-based theory of internationalisation

This paper charts the development of the knowledge-based theory of internationalisation, driven particularly by early research at the University of Uppsala, led by Sune Carlson. Information and knowledge, allied with an interest in the associated effect on risk and uncertainty, were components of a process perspective. Its essence was a focus on the restraining effects of a lack of knowledge as decision-makers contemplated international market entry or expansion requiring a commitment of resources in various forms, in different types of foreign operations (such as exporting, licensing and foreign direct investment). Lack of knowledge of a prospective foreign market (of its characteristics, culture, ways of doing business) was seen to create uncertainty so that firm decision-makers would be less prepared to commit resources. This situation was bound to change as a firm conducted operations in the foreign market and acquired experiential knowledge (learning by doing), which made the foreign market less of a mystery, in the process lowering uncertainty. As the learning process unfolded, and expanded opportunities were perceived, at some stage the firm might be prepared to undertake additional commitments to the foreign market. Empirical research at Uppsala, and in Finland, had shown a pattern of gradual expansion of foreign commitments by internationalising firms. In terms of theoretical development, a key step was relaxation of the assumption of perfect knowledge used in economics (not without critique), noted by Don Lamberton in 1974. Following the development of internationalisation theory in the 1970s, there was a range of extensions to the basic theory, such as the role of networks, the nature of inward–outward connections, and the need for knowledge to pass over language hurdles in the process of international transmission – within and outside the firm. In one sense, the internationalisation of companies was a perfect research site for an exploration of the role of information and knowledge in firm behaviour, given the additional exigencies of the diverse and demanding information environment that is the international arena.     

The emergence of toxicogenomics: a case study of molecularization

This paper described the efforts of scientists at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and their allies in the National Toxicology Program to molecularize toxicology by fostering the emergence of a new discipline: toxicogenomics. I demonstrate that the molecularization of toxicology at the NIEHS began in a process of 'co-construction'. However, the subsequent emergence of the discipline of toxicogenomics has required the deliberate development of communication across the myriad disciplines necessary to produce toxicogenomic knowledge; articulation of emergent forms, standards, and practices with extant ones; management of the tensions generated by grounding toxicogenomics in traditional toxicological standards and work practices even it transforms those standards and practices; and identification and stabilization of roles for toxicogenomic knowledge in markets and service sites, such as environmental health risk assessment and regulation. This paper describes the technological, institutional, and inter-sectoral strategies that scientists have pursued in order to meet these challenges. In so doing, this analysis offers a vista into both the means and meanings of molecularization.     

The emergence of China as a leading nation in science

China has become the fifth leading nation in terms of its share of the world's scientific publications. The citation rate of papers with a Chinese address for the corresponding author also exhibits exponential growth. More specifically, China has become a major player in critical technologies like nanotechnology. Although it is difficult to delineate nanoscience and nanotechnology, we show that China has recently achieved a position second only to that of the USA. Funding for R&D has been growing exponentially, but since 1997 even more in terms of business expenditure than in terms of government expenditure. It seems that the Chinese government has effectively used the public-sector research potential to boost the knowledge-based economy of the country. Thus, China may be achieving the (“Lisbon”) objectives of the transition to a knowledge-based economy more broadly and rapidly than its western counterparts. Because of the sustained increase in Chinese government funding and the virtually unlimited reservoir of highly skilled human resources, one may expect a continuation of this growth pattern in the near future.     

数学建模与大学数学素质教育

本文论述了数学建模在素质教育中的作用,阐述了数学建模在培养学生的数学能力以及创新能力过程中的作用,讨论了在大学数学教学过程中如何重视数学建模并充分发挥其作用.     

数学实验方法的历史脉络

本文从数学实验的实践出发,拨正对数学实验的误识,运用历史分析、逻辑分析和实证性研究的方法,指出数学实验可分为观察推演法、统计抽样检验法(包括蒙德卡罗方法、生物数学方法、运筹实验法)、模型数值计算和随机模拟法等三大类,并考察每类方法的发展历史和认识论特点。     

例说高等数学中的逆向思维

数学思维包括形式多样,逆向思维是重要的创造性思维之一,首先给出它的定义,然后主要以举例子的形式论述了英数学中的具体应用.     

创新型小微企业的群体属性及智能涌现——群集智能的视角

通过创新型小微企业群体性成长推动产业组织创新,是加快我国高新技术产业发展的客观需要。群集智能探讨分布式环境下,大量自主个体在去中心化场景中实现群体性进化的机理。通过仿生隐喻将群集智能引入产业组织研究,把创新型小微企业与社会性昆虫种群进行个体与群体类比,表明创新型小微企业集群不仅具有组织有机性、系统开放性、资源完善性、竞合并存性、文化根植性等群体复杂性,更具有明显的群集智能属性,能够通过群集智能涌现形成群体性进化。创新型小微企业产生群集智能涌现需要合适的内在规制与外部环境,并满足七个基本条件。     

高校辅导员应该具备的素养与提高路径

在大学教育体制中,辅导员是一个特殊的群体,他们承担着学生生活中的诸多工作.但是由于辅导员体制的不成熟,高校辅导员队伍的工作效果还有很大的提升空间,尤其是对于辅导员的专业素质提高,仍然有着诸多工作要做.     

“离散数学”的范式革命及其意义

20世纪中叶以来,随着计算机的诞生及其对科学与社会日渐显现的影响力,离散数学的思想和方法迅速发展,展现出了更为多样和充满活力的知识形态。离散数学的知识创新具有典型的数学范式革命性。作为对微积分范式的一种突破,离散数学超越了传统数学的知识界线,展现出在数学本体论、认识论与方法论上的新的哲学特征。与计算机与信息科学的发展相得益彰,离散数学范式具有离散化、算法化、计算性、复杂性以及与科学更为紧密的交互性等显著的当代科学革命特征,并显现出学科知识群与复杂性科学等独特的意蕴。     

The emergence of ecology from natural history

The modern discipline of biology was formed in the 20th century from roots deep in the natural-history tradition, which dates from Aristotle. Not surprisingly, therefore, ecology can also be traced to natural history, especially its 19th-century tradition emphasizing the adaptive nature of organisms to their environment. During the 20th century, ecology has developed and matured from pioneering work on successional stages to mathematically rich work on ecosystem energetics. By the end of the century, ecology has made a return to its natural-history heritage, emphasizing the importance of the integrity of ecosystems in considering human interactions with the environment.     

The emergence of cognitive science in France

A comparison between the development of cognitive science in France and the USA enables us to analyze some national differences linked to specific connections between the scientific, military, economic and political worlds. The influence of new practices and tools developed during World War II and the Cold War appears to be of crucial importance in understanding the development of this new field, as well as that of cybernetics, computer science, artificial intelligence and molecular biology. This paper can be considered as a study in how the differing contexts in France and the USA shaped the history of the construction of cognitive science in each of these two countries. In spite of various differences, some common aspects may be pointed out: in both cases, computer experts and psychologists using a computational modelling approach were those first engaged in the construction of cognitive science. If in France neuroscience-oriented cognitive science research was stronger than in the USA, it seems that the artificial intelligence orientation is also of growing importance in France.