Mother-child relationships,teacher-child relationships,and school outcomes in preschool and kindergarten

This research examines relations between measures of child-mother and child-teacher relationships and the extent to which these measures predict early school outcomes. Observations of shared affect and control problems in mother-child interaction in preschool were low-to-moderately correlated with concurrent pre-school teacher-reported aspects of child-teacher security, conflict, and dependency. Overall quality of child-mother interaction predicted teacher-reported social adjustment in kindergarten, and quality of both child-mother and child-teacher interaction predicted children's performance on a measure of concept development in preschool. Results suggest that qualities of child-mother interaction are more strongly related to preschool and kindergarten adjustment outcomes than are qualities of the child-teacher relationship. The results point to the strength of adult-child interactions in the context of the family when understanding the role of relationships with children and teachers in the school context.     

Mexican-Origin Adolescent Mothers’ Economic Contexts,Educational Re-Engagement,and Their Children’s School Readiness

Drawing on data from a longitudinal study of 204 Mexican-origin adolescent mothers, their mother figures, and their children, the current investigation examined (a) adolescent mothers’ educational re-engagement and attainment beginning during their pregnancy and ending when their child was 5 years old; and (b) the influence of the family economic context on adolescent mothers’ educational re-engagement and attainment and their children’s academic and social-emotional outcomes. Findings detailed adolescent mothers’ re-engagement in school after the birth of their child and revealed that family income during adolescents’ pregnancies was directly associated with re-engagement and attainment, and also initiated cascade effects that shaped adolescents’ economic contexts, their subsequent re-engagement and attainment, and ultimately their children’s academic and social-emotional outcomes at age 5.     

Are children of young mothers disadvantaged because of their mother's age or family background?

Using a national sample of children 3 to 16 years old, this study found that the lower test scores and increased behavior problems of children born to younger mothers are not due to her age but to her family background. First, for nonfirstborn children, maternal age at first birth has a significant effect on test scores, whereas maternal age at the child's birth does not. Second, this study replicated a controversial study by Geronimus, Korenman, and Hillemeier (1994) and found that the disadvantage of children born to younger mothers is greatly reduced when maternal family background is controlled through a comparison of children born to sisters. Third, maternal age is not an important predictor of children's test score rates of improvement over time. This evidence suggests that maternal age is not causal.     

Representation of self and socioemotional competence in kindergartners: differential and combined effects of attachment to mother and to father

In the present study, we examined the differential predictive power and the joint or compensatory effects of representations of child-mother and child-father attachment for children's representation of self and their socioemotional competence. The representations of attachment were assessed by an attachment story completion task, completed once for mother and once for father (in counterbalanced order). Eighty participants (40 boys and 40 girls), aged between 55 and 77 months (M = 5 years 3 months), took place in the study. The socioemotional competence (peer social competence, disruptive behavior, anxious/withdrawn behavior, and school adjustment) and behavioral manifestations of self-esteem were evaluated by the kindergarten teacher. The inner representation of self (positiveness of self, perceived competence, and social acceptance) was assessed in a subgroup of 50 children. Results showed that the relative predictive power of child-mother and child-father attachments differed according to the domain of child functioning that was assessed. More specifically, it was found that the child's positiveness of self was better predicted by the quality of the child-mother attachment representation than by the quality of the child-father attachment representation. In contrast, the child's anxious/withdrawn behavioral problems were better predicted by the quality of the child-father attachment representation than by the quality of the child-mother attachment representation. With regard to the joint effects of child-mother and child-father attachment, it was found that a secure attachment to one parent can compensate for or buffer against an insecure attachment to the other parent. However, the buffering effect was not complete.     

Early identification of developmentally disabled and at-risk preschool children.

This study examined child-centered data (from birth to 7 years) and familial factors as possible predictors of disabilities in adolescence. The sample was taken from original participants in the National Collaborative Perinatal Project in Rhode Island who were also judged as handicapped after school entry. Results of the current study indicated that parental traits (i.e., maternal education) are more accurate predictors of adolescent status than the child's own behavior from birth to 3 years, whereas child-centered skills assessed at 4 and 7 years of age are better predictors than are familial factors. Overall, data suggest that early identification models which focus upon developmental delay or adverse medical events from birth to 3 years of age are inadequate in fully identifying children eventually judged to be handicapped. Screening initiatives must be developed that are multivariate (child and family focused) and account for differential weights of risk factors over time.     

Mothers’ reading-related activities at home and learning to read during kindergarten

This longitudinal study investigates how the reading-related activities of mothers at home relate to the development of reading skills among their kindergarten children. A total of 1,529 children (5-to-6-year-olds) were tested on word reading twice, once at the beginning and once at the end of a kindergarten year. The mothers of the children (n = 1,529) answered a questionnaire on reading-related activities with their children at home (on shared reading, teaching letters, and the teaching of reading) and on their level of education, their child’s birth order, and the gender of the child. The results show that of the three reading-related activities, mothers’ teaching of reading is the best predictor of the development of reading skills among kindergarten children. The results also show that good reading skills at the beginning of the kindergarten year increase the maternal teaching of reading a child subsequently receives. The results further demonstrate that girls, firstborns, and children with more highly educated mothers are more likely to become good readers by the end of the kindergarten year.     

Maternal perinatal risk factors and child abuse

A retrospective matched pair study was designed to compare maternal perinatal factors such as abnormal pregnancy history and labor and delivery experience in families who subsequently were reported as physically abusive to one or more of their children as compared to non-abusive families. The study population consisted of the mothers of 532 children reported to the Baltimore (Maryland) Department of Social Services as physically abused during the years 1975-77. The comparison group was handmatched to the study group from State of Maryland birth certificates on the basis of the abused child's birth year and sex, maternal race, education and hospital of delivery. The study population was 67% black with a mean maternal education of 10.5 completed years. The abused children were 59% male with 48% less than 2 years of age. Results indicated that selected medical definitions of abnormal pregnancy, labor and delivery did not identify families at differential risk of maltreatment. However, mothers in maltreating families were younger, had shorter birth intervals, less prenatal care and were significantly more likely to have had a stillbirth or reported abortion or a prior child death. Study limitations are addressed as are suggestions for future research.     

Childhood history of abuse and child abuse potential in adolescent mothers: a longitudinal study

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this research was to determine whether adolescent mothers of newborns are at higher risk for child abuse than adult mothers of newborns and to examine whether adolescent mothers with memories of child maltreatment have a higher risk for child abuse. METHOD: Two groups (adolescents and adults) of pregnant mothers were followed for 20 months beginning between the 5th and the 7th month of pregnancy until the child was 18 months old. Adolescent (N = 24) and adult (N = 24) mothers were matched on sociodemographic variables. During pregnancy, memories of child maltreatment were evaluated. When child was 1, 6, 12, and 18 months old, risk for child abuse was evaluated. RESULTS: Adolescent and adult mothers showed no differences in memories of childhood physical or emotional abuse. Nevertheless, adolescent mothers showed higher child abuse potential and depression scores than adult mothers. Mothers with memories of severe physical punishment showed higher child abuse potential scores and mothers with memories of physical punishment producing physical damage showed higher child abuse potential and depression scores. A statistically significant age of the mother by physical punishment producing physical damage interaction was found for depression. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this longitudinal study indicated that the potential for abuse was significantly greater in adolescent mothers than in adult mothers, and in mothers who had been victims of physical abuse than in those who had not. It also appeared that, among adolescent mothers, those who had been victims of childhood physical abuse constitute a higher risk group for child physical abuse.     

Joint attention and early language

This paper reports 2 studies that explore the role of joint attentional processes in the child's acquisition of language. In the first study, 24 children were videotaped at 15 and 21 months of age in naturalistic interaction with their mothers. Episodes of joint attentional focus between mother and child--for example, joint play with an object--were identified. Inside, as opposed to outside, these episodes both mothers and children produced more utterances, mothers used shorter sentences and more comments, and dyads engaged in longer conversations. Inside joint episodes maternal references to objects that were already the child's focus of attention were positively correlated with the child's vocabulary at 21 months, while object references that attempted to redirect the child's attention were negatively correlated. No measures from outside these episodes related to child language. In an experimental study, an adult attempted to teach novel words to 10 17-month-old children. Words referring to objects on which the child's attention was already focused were learned better than words presented in an attempt to redirect the child's attentional focus.     

Maternal sensitivity predicts language gain in preschool children who are deaf and hard of hearing

The link between maternal sensitivity and child language gain was assessed in a prospective study of hearing mothers and their deaf and hard-of-hearing (D/HH) children. Maternal sensitivity in dyadic interaction was assessed when children were approximately 2 years old, and expressive language gain was assessed at 2 to 3 years using the Minnesota Child Development Inventory. Sensitivity made significant, positive, and unique predictions of expressive language gain when the effects of maternal education, degree of child hearing loss, dyadic mode of communication, and time between assessments were controlled. Findings indicate the value of affective measures of interaction in predicting language gain.     

The predictive impact of domestic violence on three types of child maltreatment

OBJECTIVE: This exploratory study investigated the co-occurrence of domestic violence and three types of child maltreatment: physical child abuse, psychological child abuse, and child neglect. METHOD: A sample of 2544 at-risk mothers with first-born children participated in a home-visiting child abuse prevention program. A longitudinal design using multiple data collection methods investigated the effect of domestic violence during the first 6 months of child rearing on confirmed physical child abuse, psychological child abuse, and child neglect up to the child's first 5 years. RESULTS: Logistic regressions revealed significant relationships between domestic violence and physical child abuse, psychological child abuse, and child neglect. These effects were significant beyond the significant effects of known risks of maltreatment, as measured by the Kempe Family Stress Inventory (KFSI). Domestic violence occurred in 59 (38%) of the 155 cases of confirmed maltreatment. Domestic violence preceded child maltreatment in 46 (78%) of the 59 cases of co-occurrence, as indicated by independent home observations and child protective service records. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that domestic violence during the first 6 months of child rearing is significantly related to all three types of child maltreatment up to the child's fifth year. Domestic violence and risks factors measured on the KFSI continue to contribute to all three types of maltreatment up to the child's fifth year. Prevention programs would be wise to provide services to at-risk families until the child is at least 5 years old. Addressing concurrent problems during treatment may enhance intervention.     

Hospitalized cases of nonorganic failure to thrive: the scope of the problem and short-term lay health visitor intervention

This paper describes the characteristics of thriving and failure to thrive (FTT) children and their mothers and examines the effect of short-term lay health visitor intervention in cases of nonorganic failure to thrive (NO FTT). Twenty-five FTT children and mothers received lay health visitor (LHV) intervention in addition to other community and medical treatment; 25 other FTT children and mothers did not receive the LHV intervention but did receive all other medical and community treatment. Twenty-five thriving children and mothers were matched with the FTT children and mothers in the LHV group on the child's age at intake, sex, birth weight, and the mother's age, ethnicity, and number of living children. At initial assessment, the FTT and thriving groups were found to be comparable on demographic factors, infant birth weight percentiles, apgar scores, complications of pregnancy or delivery, and separations in the newborn period. There were more premature births in the LHV group although the proportion of premature births for the FTT and thriving groups overall were similar. A majority of mothers in the FTT groups had negative memories of childhood in contrast to more positive memories in the thriving group. At initial assessment, the majority of thriving children were developmentally normal and had increased from their birth weight percentiles whereas all of the FTT children had decreased from their birthweight percentiles and over half were developmentally delayed. There were clear differences in mother-child interaction patterns in the thriving and FTT groups. Three patterns of interaction were identified in the FTT group: benign neglect, incoordination, and overt hostility. Intervention had no measurable effect on the child's weight, development, or interaction patterns. Only 8 of 37 FTT children reevaluated 6 months later showed "catch up" growth and only 7 had improved in developmental score category. Patterns of interaction were found to persist over the 6 months in all cases. One to three year follow-up of 44 families emphasized the severity of the condition and the need for differentiation of the severity of the disturbance in the mother-child relationship and for more intensive intervention than was available in this study. Of these 44 cases, 2 children had died, 5 had been physically abused or further neglected, and 10 were in alternative care arrangements.     

Pakistani Teachers’ Perceptions of Kindergarten Children’s Learning: An Exploration of Understanding and Practice

This paper considers perceptions of children’s learning and classroom practice to support learning in the Pakistani early years educational context. In Pakistan, there is a growing focus on quality provision of early childhood education and building early childhood education teacher capacity. Over the course of one academic year, data were collected from kindergarten teachers in a Pakistani urban school through interviews and classroom observations as part of a larger study. Findings presented in this paper are based on the interview data of two teachers in the sample, a novice and an experienced teacher. Data analysis examined their perceptions of kindergarten children’s learning and of their practice to support kindergarten children’s learning, taking into consideration the gender perspective. The results showed tensions in the teachers’ perceptions which contrasted between a constructivist approach and a teacher-directed skills approach. Perceptions of their practice reflected a formal, teacher-directed approach rather than a constructivist approach and a teacher-directed skills approach to teaching. Several factors, including deep-rooted perceptions as well as curriculum structure, time, number of staff and resources, contributed to this.     

Early Relationship Quality From Home to School: A Longitudinal Study

The aim of this investigation was to examine the role of social relationships in the home as predictors of social functioning in the first years of school. Longitudinal data gathered on 156 children from urban, low-income families were used to examine the unique contributions of mother-child attachment classification at ages 1 and 2 years, the child's relationship with another adult caregiver, the child's closeness to a sibling, and the child's status in the family relative to siblings between ages 3 and 4 years, to teacher reports of their own relationship to the child and the child's social skills in the classroom and peer relations. The role of family-based relationships as possible protective factors for children at social or demographic risk for problems in school was also tested. Results indicate that quality of different family relationships provides relatively independent and complementary information about early social functioning in school, with more limited evidence for compensatory or protective processes at work.     

Children's Classroom Peer Relationships and Early School Attitudes: Concurrent and Longitudinal Associations

The purpose of this study was to further explore the linkage between children's early school attitudes and interpersonal features of the classroom, including children's relationships with classmates and their perceptions of these relationships. Participants included 102 kindergarten children (M age = 5.8 years) who were interviewed at the beginning and end of kindergarten to obtain measures of their school attitudes (i.e., school liking), classroom peer relationships (i.e., peer acceptance, mutual friendships), and peer relationship perceptions (i.e., perceived loneliness, peer support). Results showed that initial school liking was associated with all four measures of children's peer relationships; however, only the number of mutual friendships that children possessed in their classrooms predicted changes in school attitudes (gains) over time. Early school attitudes were linked to changes in children's peer perceptions; children who disliked school early in kindergarten were more likely to view classmates as unsupportive as the school year progressed. Results are discussed in terms of the potential impact that classroom peer relations may have on early school attitudes, and vice versa. Implications for educational policy are also considered.     

The effect of teacher intervention on object manipulation in young children

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of limited oral and physical teacher intervention on object manipulation by preschool and early elementary children. The population consisting of 70 children, three, four, five, and six years old from two preschools and two kindergarten classes were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Children were observed as they manipulated magnets in classroom settings. Experimental students had the objects placed in their hands and were orally invited to explore. Results showed that there were significant differences between the groups in total time spent with the objects, number of activities performed, and cognitive level of operation. No significant differences were found in the number of contacts or in the interactive effects of treatment and testing day. The findings suggest that teacher roles may have an effect on student exploration and quality of interaction with unfamiliar objects.     

Developmental trajectories of disruptive behavior problems in preschool children of adolescent mothers

Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), we analyzed individual developmental trajectories of disruptive behavior problems between ages 3.5 to 6.0 years for 183 children of adolescent mothers. We examined how the level of problem behavior (intercept) and the rate of change over time (slope) are influenced by child's sex, mother's depression/anxiety symptoms, and mother's use of negative control for regulating child behavior. On average, disruptive behavior decreased from age 3.5 to 6.0. Child sex and maternal depression/anxiety related to the level of behavior problems but not to the rate of change. Boys and children of more depressed/anxious mothers exhibited higher levels of disruptive behavior. Maternal negative control was associated with both level of disruptive behavior and rate of change, and negative control mediated the effects of maternal depression/anxiety. Greater negative control corresponded to higher levels of behavior problems and no reduction in their display over time. Child race moderated effects of negative control.     

Transitions On and Off AFDC: Implications for Parenting and Children''s Cognitive Development

The goal of current national and state legislation on welfare reform is to decrease the number of people who are dependent on public assistance, most of whom are mothers and their young children. Mothers' patterns of welfare receipt in the 3 years following the birth of a child were examined vis-à-vis their associations with maternal emotional distress (General Health Questionnaire), provision of learning experiences (Home Observation of the Measurement of the Environment), parenting behavior, and the child's cognitive test score (Stanford-Binet) in the third year of life. The data set was the Infant Health and Development Program, an eight-site randomized clinical trial designed to test the efficacy of educational and family support services in reducing developmental delays in low-birthweight, preterm infants (N = 833). Strong negative associations were found between receiving welfare and parenting behavior and child outcomes at age 3 years. Outcomes varied depending on when the mother received public assistance (earlier or later in her child's first 3 years) and family poverty status on leaving welfare. The parenting behavior of mothers who had left welfare by their child's third birthday was more likely to be authoritarian if she had left public assistance without also leaving poverty. Implications of these findings for the well-being of children in low-income families are discussed.