Sur l'enseignement de la relation transitive a l'ecole elementaire

A team, comprising teachers of mathematics and psychopedagogues, tried to define the prerequisites for the command of the transitive relation during the elementary period of education in France. The aim of this study was to bring to light the impact of teaching on a notion which was not specifically meant to be taught. After selecting a sample of pupils, the team set them a progressive test composed of transitive operations bearing on symbolic objects and structures. This study permitted us to observe what conditions are required for success, and how the command of the transitive relation develops.The interpretation of the results leads us to stress several important factors. First, confirming the studies of Piaget's disciples, observation shows a characteristic threshold in the learning of that notion around the age of 6–8. However, if the command of transitive relation bearing on objects is almost complete towards the end of elementary education, a certain stagnation of results can be noticed in the case of symbolic relations, except for the pupils who get very good results in mathematics. The authors feel they have brought two obstacles into light. One is resulting from the number of elements to be combined. A combination of more than three terms seems to present a considerable difficulty for many children. The other obstacle comes from the nature of the exercises set at school. Apparently, they require the children to use a type of problem solving quite unattainable for many of them. On the whole, the authors feel that education, to be efficient, should be more selective about the notions to be learnt and the conditions of their teaching.

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Sur l'enseignement de la relation transitive a l'ecole elementaire

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Le présent article est consécutif aux travaux d'un groupe d'enseignants réunis dans le cadre de l'I.R.E.M. de Poitiers en 1977–78.     

Le probleme des valeurs a l'ecole française aujourd'hui

Résumé Depuis les années soixante, l'école publique en France a pratiquement abandonné les réformes d'enseignement des valeurs morales, laissant les adolescents désorientés dans se domaine. L'auteur juge cette situation profondément malsaine et soutient que l'école se doit aussi d'enseigner aux élèves à opérer des choix moraux et à agir en conséquence. Il récuse le point de vue rationaliste selon lequel la science rend superflue la morale traditionnelle mais reconnaît parallèlement la valeur morale inhérente au principe scientifique de vérité et d'objectivité. Il argumente en faveur d'une forme d'éducation morale visant à inculquer le respect des diverses conceptions, normes culturelles et croyances religieuses, et qui serait en mesure d'aborder d'importants problèmes de société tels que drogue, violence, sexualité, justice sociale et pauvreté, racisme et pollution.

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Since the 1960s the French public school system has virtually abandoned the attempt to teach moral values, leaving students morally disoriented. The author finds this situation profoundly unhealthy and argues that schools have a responsibility to help in developing the ability of pupils to make moral choices and act accordingly. He rejects the rationalist view that science makes traditional morality unnecessary. At the same time, he recognizes the moral value of the scientific respect of truth and objectivity. He argues for a form of moral education which would inculcate respect for different points of view, cultural norms and religious beliefs, and which would not shy away from addressing morally important issues such as drag abuse, violence, sexuality, social justice, poverty, racism and environmental pollution.

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Zusammenfassung Seit den 60er Jahren hat das öffentliche französische Schulsystem den Versuch, moralische Wertvorstellungen zu unterrichten praktisch aufgegeben und damit die Studenten ohne moralische Orientierung gelassen. Der Autor bezeichnet diese Situation als höchst ungesund und argumentiert dahingehend, daß Schulen die Verantwortung für die Entwicklung von Fähigkeiten der Schüler zu moralischer Wahl und Handlung tragen. Er lehnt die rationale Ansicht ab, daß Wissenschaft die traditionelle Moralität überflüssig macht. Zur gleichen Zeit erkennt er jedoch den moralischen Wert wissenschaftlichen Respekts für Wahrheit und Objektivität an. Der Autor setzt sich für eine Form der moralischen Erziehung ein, die Respekt für unterschiedliche Ansichten, kulturelle Normen und religiöse Glaubensrichtungen beinhaltet und die auch vor einer Behandlung moralisch wichtiger Themen nicht zurückschreckt, wie z.B. Drogenmißbrauch, Gewalt, Sexualität, soziale Gerechtigkeit, Rassismus und Umweltverschmutzung.

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Sumario En Francia, a partir de los años sesenta el sistema de enseñanza pública prácticamente ha abandonado el intento de transmitir valores morales, dejando a los alumnos moralmente desorientados. El autor considera que esta situación es sumamente peligrosa, y sostiene que a las escuelas les corresponde la responsabilidad de ayudar a desarrollar la capacidad de los alumnos para tomar decisiones morales y actuar conforme a las mismas. Rechaza el punto de vista racionalista de que la ciencia hace innecesaria la moralidad traditional. Al mismo tiempo, reconoce el valor moral del respeto científico por la verdad y la objetividad. Aboga por una forma de educación moral que inculque el respeto de diferentes puntos de vista, normas culturales y creencias religiosas y que no eluda temas importantes de la moral como lo son la drogadicción, la violencia, la sexualidad, la justicia social, la pobreza, el racismo y la contaminación ambiental.

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Part of this article appeared in the Cahiers Binet-SimonNo. 3–4 1993, published by the Société Alfred Binet et Théodore Simon, Lyon.     

Nouvelles tendances dans L'appreciation des taches de l'enseignement elementaire

Sans résumé

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New trends in defining the functions of elementary education

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Neue Tendenzen in der Beurteilung der Aufgaben des Elementarunterrichts

     

取得时效期间的计算

取得时效的构成要件为两个方面,即“占有”和“经过一定期间”。作为取得时效的重要构成要件之一:“经过一定期间”,即取得时效期间,其何时开始起算、何时中止、中断是取得时效制度中的核心问题,应以各个国家和地区的相关立法规定、学说为基础,对这一核心问题以及其中的一些难点进行充分研究,这是取得时效制度应用中急待解决的问题。     

Enseignants Italiens: Attitudes relatives a leur position et a la reforme de l'ecole moyenne

Sans résumé     

La participation des parents a l'ecole primaire trente ans apres: un objectif encore a atteindre

This study examines the perceptions which teachers, head teachers and parents have of the participation of parents in the running of primary schools. While participation has been widely advocated (in North America, Europe and Africa), it appears that there are still tensions between the school and the family. The study shows that parents who are members of school councils state that they favour participation while teachers express some doubts on the positive aspects. Headteachers are more convinced, however. A number of variables help to differentiate the results, such as environment (rural, semi-urban or urban), and the sub-group to which the respondents belong (parents who are members or non-members of school councils, and teachers of different grades). The discussion considers the need for dialogue and consideration of each person's position in the interest of creating conditions favourable to children's development.     

离心式污水泵内部流场的三维数值模拟

采用SIMPLE算法、kε-Ap模型和混合四面体非结构网格在笛卡尔坐标系中对离心式污水泵内部流场进行了数值模拟,得出了污水泵内固体颗粒的流动规律以及固体颗粒的分布特征,为离心式污水泵的优化设计提供理论参考。     

Fabrication de problèmes de fraction par des eleves a la fin de l'enseignement elementaire

Résumé Une expérience d'enseignement a été menée avec des élèves de Cours Moyen (Grade 4 et 5). Les élèves ont participé à une activité spécifiquement élaborée, la production de problèmes de fractions, à l'aide d'une terminologie spécifique, grâce à la production et à l'observation d'un ensemble de critères. Ainsi, les interactions au sein de la classe ont été organisées dans le but d'élaborer un système commun de significations, basé sur des outils sémiotiques appropriés, qui ont permis au maître et aux élèves de partager des significations mathématiques. De telles interactions nécessitent une négociation de nouvelles normes sociales qui détermine, pour le maître et les élèves, un nouveau contrat didactique.

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A longitudinal teaching experiment was conducted with fourth and fifth graders. Students participated in a specially designed activity, the production of fraction problems using a specific terminology developed through producing and applying a set of criteria. The interactions within the class were organised with the goal of developing a common system of meanings, based on appropriate semiotic tools, allowing teacher and students to share mathematical significations. Such interactions require a negotiation of new social norms determining, for teacher and students, a new didactic contract.

     

Preservice Teachers' Knowledge of Difficulties in Decimal Numeration

In this study we investigated preservice elementary school teachers' content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of decimal numeration. The preservice teachers completed a decimal comparison test, marked items they thought would be difficult for students, and explained why. Only about 80 percent of the sample tested as experts, indicating that a significant proportion of preservice teachers have inadequate content knowledge of decimals. Confusion about the size of decimals in relation to zero was a significant and unexpected difficulty, leading to concerns about the fragmentary nature of the preservice teachers' knowledge. Most preservice teachers were aware of longer-is-larger misconceptions in students, but had little awareness of shorter-is-larger misconceptions. Preservice teachers' explanations for the reasons students might have difficulty demonstrated that many are good at identifying features that make comparisons difficult but less able to explain why these cause trouble. Results point to the need for teacher education to emphasise content knowledge that integrates different aspects of number knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge that includes a thorough understanding of common difficulties. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

简单回归系数联合置信区域的计算

1959年Scheffe给出了线性模型结构(Y，Xβ，σ^2In)的待估参数列向量β中任意γ个独立可估参数的联合置信区域。本文只用基本的统计理论，给出了一元线性回归系数β0，β1的(1-α)％的联合置信区间的计算方法。     

巧用数字表测非正弦波电压

根据数字万用表的测试原理，提出了用其测量非正弦波电压平均值、有效值及峰值的简单实用的方法。     

Coordination of Knowledge of Numeration and Arithmetic Operations on First Grade Students

The aim of this study was to develop a better understanding of the processes involved in the construction of the oral and written symbolic systems of numbers and to grasp their role in the elaboration of the modeling function of numbers. Tasks related to both spoken and written number sequenceS and to addition and subtraction problems were given to six first graders. Analysis of the children's behavior permits discussion of certain theoretical questions raised by the research results of the construction of number sequence, contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between numeration and arithmetic operations and finally, in light of these results, permits us to propose ideas for teaching.     

Résolution de problèmes de division au cycle elementaire dans deux types de situations didactiques

This study deals with the observation of a class composed of children aged 8–9 solving division problems. The analysis aims at differentiating the attitudes of pupils confronted with situations resulting from ‘EMPIRICAL’ learning from those observed in situations involving action resulting from ‘DIALECTIC’ learning. Two learning sequences are described in the course of the study:

* The first includes four classical terms which allow the use of empirical methods to find the quotient and the remainder.

* The second includes two terms elaborated so that they favour a dialectic of action with the children.

The observed differences reveal that:

* The repetition of drills of the same nature during the first learning sequence does not result in important variations as far as success and solution procedures are concerned.

* On the other hand, during the second learning sequence, all pupils use a more economical solution procedure with high level success rate.

     

物理化学考研中九个热力学函数求算的考点分析

物理化学是化学及相关专业考研中的必考科目,本毕业设计对物理化学考研中九个热力学函数求算的考点进行了分析,并结合各高校物理化学真题对考点进行了深入分析,使考物理化学科目的考生能很好的理解和掌握此考点。     

Didactic practice and the construction of the personal relation of six-year-old pupils to an object of knowledge: Numeration

Wishing to explore the complexity of the conceptual, didactic and institutional aspects of learning a scientifically defined object of knowledge, we chose to study the link between the personal relation to numeration developed by six-year-old pupils in first grade (“cours préparatoire” the first level of primary school in France), and more particularly, the relationship between the construction of pupils’ relation to the concept of “tens” and the didactic practice of their teachers during the lessons. Our study shows that both teachers establish “strong” didactic contracts, leaving it up to the pupils to develop on their own the capacity of making mathematical decisions and destabilizing the procedure of counting one by one. There is a difference between classes in the articulation of knowledge and know-how. In the ZEP class learning is centered on know-how; in the other class knowledge and know-how are simply juxtaposed, their relationship is never made explicit. The result is that only 4 children out of 42 (the two classes taken together) can work with both. All four belong to the categories of “good” or “very good” students.     

天保房地产开发公司发展战略研究

天保房地产开发公司根植于天津滨海新区。依托控股公司带来的资源优势，基于滨海新区列入国家发展战略部署的背景，在近年来取得了迅速的发展。但是随着国家一系列政策的出台，中国的房地产行业面临着一次大的重新洗牌过程，同时企业内部仍然存在着制度缺陷、管理不规范、流程不清晰、人员激励不足等各方面的问题，所以，天保房地产公司在面临着滨海新区良好发展机遇的同时，也面临着很大的挑战。如何在机遇与挑战并存的环境中，认真分析和评估企业的外部环境及内部资源与能力的优劣势，对企业内部的资源与能力进行积累与培养，制定相应的竞争与发展战略，引导企业的健康长远发展具有一定的必要性与迫切性。 本文从竞争战略的角度，综合分析天保房地产开发公司所面临的外部环境和内部条件，研究探讨天保房地产开发公司的发展战略框架，包括战略的指导思想、战略定位、战略目标及相应的实施措施，以期实现天保房地产开发公司的发展愿景和核心价值。