Changes in early adolescents' sense of responsibility to their parents in the United States and China: implications for academic functioning

This research examined American and Chinese children's sense of responsibility to their parents during early adolescence, with a focus on its implications for children's academic functioning. Four times over the seventh and eighth grades, 825 children (mean age = 12.73 years) in the United States and China reported on their sense of responsibility to their parents. Information on children's academic functioning was also collected from children as well as school records. Although children's sense of responsibility to their parents declined over the seventh and eighth grades in the United States, this was not the case in China. In both countries, children's sense of responsibility was predictive of enhanced academic functioning among children over time.     

Japanese Adolescents' Disclosure and Information Management With Parents

Adolescents' obligation to disclose and their actual disclosure about their activities to parents, justifications for nondisclosure, and strategies for information management were examined in different domains in 460 middle adolescents (M_age = 16.6 years) from working and middle‐class families in Japan. Adolescents felt most obligated to disclose prudential issues, but disclosed most about personal issues. Adolescents primarily justified nondisclosure with claims to personal choice and for prudential issues, concerns with parental disapproval. They rarely lied and mostly told parents if asked or avoided the issue. Findings revealed consistencies with prior work on disclosure with European and U.S. adolescents, as well as patterns specific to the Japanese cultural setting.     

Longitudinal links between maternal cultural socialization,peer ethnic-racial discrimination,and ethnic-racial pride in Mexican American youth

This paper used cross-lagged panel models to test the longitudinal interplay between maternal cultural socialization, peer ethnic-racial discrimination, and ethnic-racial pride across 5th to 11th grade among Mexican American youth (N = 674, M_age = 10.86; 72% born in the United States; 50% girls; Wave 1 collected 2006–2008). Maternal cultural socialization predicted increases in subsequent youth ethnic-racial pride, and youth ethnic-racial pride prompted greater maternal cultural socialization. However, peer ethnic-racial discrimination was associated with subsequent decreases in ethnic-racial pride. The magnitude of these associations was consistent across 5th to 11th grades suggesting that maternal cultural socialization messages are necessary to maintain ethnic-racial pride across adolescence, thus families must continually support the development of ethnic-racial pride in their youth to counter the effects of discrimination.     

American and Chinese Early Adolescents' Inclusion of Their Relationships With Their Parents in Their Self-Construals

This research examined children's interdependent self-construals as manifest in their seeing their relationships with their parents as self-defining. Four times over early adolescence, 825 children (mean age = 12.73 years) in the United States and China reported on their inclusion of their relationships with their parents in their self-construals as well as other dimensions of their psychological functioning. Although there was continuity in children's inclusion of their relationships with their parents in their self-construals, American, but not Chinese, children decreased their inclusion over time. In both the United States and China, the more children defined themselves in terms of their relationships with their parents, the more their perceptions of the quality of these relationships mattered for their subsequent emotional functioning.     

Discrimination‐Related Stress Effects on the Development of Internalizing Symptoms Among Latino Adolescents

This three‐wave longitudinal study of 173 Latino adolescents (M = 16.16 years, SD = 0.65) is designed to understand the role of discrimination‐related stress in mental health trajectories during middle to late adolescence with attention to differences due to immigration status. The results of the growth curve analysis showed that anxious‐depressed, withdrawn‐depressed, and somatic complaints significantly decreased over time. Furthermore, although discrimination‐related stress was found to be significantly related to the trajectories of three types of mental health symptoms, the results revealed that immigration status moderated these relations such that discrimination‐related stress was significantly related to these outcomes for Latino youth whose parents were born in the United States, while this relation was not significant for Latino children of immigrants.     

Disclosure to Parents About Everyday Activities Among American Adolescents From Mexican, Chinese, and European Backgrounds

Disclosure to parents and reasons for not disclosing different activities were examined in 489 Chinese, Mexican, and European American adolescents ( M  =   16.37 years, SD  =   0.77). With generational status controlled, Chinese American adolescents disclosed less to mothers about personal and multifaceted activities than European Americans and less about personal feelings than other youth, primarily because these acts were considered personal, not harmful, or because parents would not listen or understand. Disclosure regarding prudential behavior was lower among Mexican American than among European American adolescents, primarily due to concerns with parental disapproval. Multigroup path analyses indicated that greater closeness to parents is associated with more disclosure for all youth and activities; associations between family obligation and disclosure varied by domain and ethnicity.     

Responses to Interpersonal Stress: Normative Changes Across Childhood and the Impact of Peer Victimization

This research examined the development of stress responses across second to sixth grades and whether exposure to peer victimization alters stress response trajectories. Youth (338 girls; 298 boys; M_age = 7.97 years, SD = .37) reported on stress responses; teachers and youth reported on peer victimization. Latent growth curve modeling revealed an increase in effortful engagement responses and a decrease in disengagement and involuntary engagement responses during this period. Peer victimization disrupted these normative trajectories, resulting in less effortful engagement and more effortful disengagement and involuntary stress responses in early adolescence. These findings suggest that early peer victimization sensitizes youth to stress by interfering with the development of effective coping and fostering maladaptive stress responses.     

Fostering social connectedness among adolescents and adults with autism: A qualitative analysis

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) impacts approximately 1 in 44 children in the United States. Common characteristics of ASD are marked deficits in communication and social connectedness. As autistic children approach adolescence, there is a lack of interventions available to them. Mentoring can provide adolescents with a relationship that facilitates social connectedness with another person who has a shared life experience, filling a gap in services. The Autism Mentorship Program (AMP) was designed to provide autistic adolescents a meaningful relationship with an autistic young adult. Via participation in focus groups, mentees (n = 5), mentors (n = 6), and parents of mentees (n = 6) shared their experience of participating in an afterschool, youth mentoring intervention. Themes were developed from an open coding procedure. Results showed that AMP was associated with helping mentees find social connection within their mentoring relationship and among the group of mentees. Mentors also reported mutual benefits in social connectedness. Perceived benefits of the program, including improved academic performance, and suggestions for future programming are reported. AMP appears to be a promising program that provides social benefits for adolescents with ASD who may have few options for this type of support.     

Parent socialization and anti-racist ideology development in White youth: Do peer and parenting contexts matter?

The development of anti-racist ideology in adolescence and emerging adulthood is informed by parent socialization, parenting style, and cross-race friendships. This study used longitudinal, multi-reporter survey data from White youth and their parents in Maryland to examine links between parents' racial attitudes when youth were in eleventh grade in 1996 (N = 453; 52% female; M_age = 17.12) and the youths' anti-racist ideology (acknowledgment of anti-Black discrimination and support for affirmative action) 1 year after high school in 1998. This study also examined whether these associations varied based on authoritative parenting and the number of cross-race friendships. Positive parent racial attitudes toward racially and ethnically minoritized populations predicted higher anti-racist ideology in the independent contexts of more cross-race friendships and low authoritative parenting.     

Why Are Chinese Mothers More Controlling Than American Mothers? “My Child Is My Report Card”

Chinese parents exert more control over children than do American parents. The current research examined whether this is due in part to Chinese parents' feelings of worth being more contingent on children's performance. Twice over a year, 215 mothers and children (M_age = 12.86 years) in China and the United States (European and African American) reported on psychologically controlling parenting. Mothers also indicated the extent to which their worth is contingent on children's performance. Psychologically controlling parenting was higher among Chinese than American mothers, particularly European (vs. African) American mothers. Chinese (vs. American) mothers' feelings of worth were more contingent on children's performance, with this contributing to their heightened psychological control relative to American mothers.     

Are Gains in Decision‐Making Autonomy During Early Adolescence Beneficial for Emotional Functioning? The Case of the United States and China

This research examined the role of children’s decision‐making autonomy in their emotional functioning during early adolescence in the United States and China. Four times over the 7th and 8th grades, 825 American and Chinese children (M = 12.73 years) reported on the extent to which they versus their parents make decisions about issues children often deem as under their authority. Children also reported on their emotional functioning. American children made greater gains over time in decision‐making autonomy than did Chinese children. Initial decision‐making autonomy predicted enhanced emotional functioning similarly among American and Chinese children. However, gains over time in decision‐making autonomy predicted enhanced emotional functioning more in the United States (vs. China) where such gains were normative.     

A cross-cultural study of parents' perceptions of early childhood programs

Cross-cultural studies in early childhood education assist in expanding perspectives and gaining increased understanding and appreciation of programs in other countries. Because both Sweden and the United States are interested in parent involvement in early childhood programs, a survey was conducted to assess parent's perceptions of these programs. Following a review of family life and early childhood education in Sweden and the United States are the specific components of the cross-cultural study. A stratified random sample of parents whose children were involved in early childhood programs was done in St. Louis County, MN, United States, and Kronobergs Lan, Småland, Sweden. In the first section of the five-part survey, parents indicated the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with statements about such areas as governmental support of children and families. Parents in Sweden felt more support of the government, whereas parents in the United States used early childhood programs as a support mechanism to increase their confidence. In the other four sections of the survey, parents rated the importance of various types of parental involvement and the importance of various materials, activities, and caregiver actions in their children's programs. In general, parents in Sweden valued informal contact and inner-directed creative materials and activities. Parents in the United States valued more confining activities such as rote counting, community-based experiences, and compliance with adult expectations. The influence of the macro-society on parents' perceptions as well as microsystem interactions and environments is evident in this study. As early childhood educators learn about and adapt new ideas to their own programs, the potential of cross-cultural studies becomes realized in improved opportunities for young children and their families.     

Does Adolescents' Disclosure to Their Parents Matter for Their Academic Adjustment?

The role of adolescents' disclosure to their parents in their academic adjustment was examined in a study of 825 American and Chinese adolescents (mean age = 12.73 years). Four times over the seventh and eighth grades, adolescents reported on their spontaneous disclosure of everyday activities to their parents, the quality of their relationships with their parents, and their parents' autonomy support and control. Information about multiple dimensions of adolescents' academic adjustment (e.g., learning strategies, autonomous vs. controlled motivation, and grades) was also obtained. Both American and Chinese adolescents' disclosure predicted their enhanced academic adjustment over time. However, when American adolescents disclosed in a negative context (e.g., a poor parent–child relationship or controlling parenting), their autonomous (vs. controlled) motivation was undermined.     

Exploring meaning-making with adolescents ‘left behind’ by migration

This paper focuses on a population that has received little attention in migration and in youth-related research: those ‘left behind’ when parents migrate to the United States in search of a better life for their families. Findings presented here are drawn from two sets of workshops with Mayan youth participants in the Southern Quiché region of Guatemala who have been directly (one or both parents have migrated) or indirectly (friends, relatives or neighbors have migrated) affected by migration. Through participatory action research processes, we have found that youth report parents’ departures in search of a better life for the family while also describing their yearning for them to return. Most viewed the United States as a discriminatory place where life is treacherous, including for their own family members. Despite this, they reported deep desires to migrate there. We discuss these findings in light of the direct and indirect messages that youth receive from their teachers who often discourage their dreams to journey north, and ourselves, participatory action researchers who work with their families in the United States and travel regularly to spend time with them in Guatemala. The strengths and challenges of participatory action research with this population are addressed.     

Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms Among North American Indigenous Adolescents: Considering Predictors and Outcomes

We identified developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms among 674 Indigenous adolescents (M_age = 11.10, SD = 0.83 years) progressing from early to late adolescence. Four depressive symptoms trajectories were identified: (a) sustained low, (b) initially low but increasing, (c) initially high but decreasing, and (d) sustained high levels of depressive symptoms. Trajectory group membership varied as a function of gender, pubertal development, caregiver major depression, and perceived discrimination. Moreover, participants in the different trajectory groups were at differential risk for the development of an alcohol use disorder. These results highlight the benefit of examining the development of depressive symptoms and the unique ways that depressive symptoms develop among North American Indigenous youth as they progress through adolescence.     

Racial discrimination and the moderating effects of racial and ethnic socialization on the mental health of Asian American youth

This study investigates trajectories of racial discrimination, racial and ethnic socialization (RES), and their interaction effects with social positions (nativity and gender) on mental health. A longitudinal study of 786 Filipino American (FA) and Korean American (KA) youth from the Midwestern United States (M_age.Wave1 = 15) confirmed that discrimination increased and significantly contributed to the upward trend of mental health distress, whereas the impact of RES differed by its type and by ethnicity. For example, promotion of mistrust and ethnic-heritage socialization were protective among U.S.-born FA youth, but for KA youth, preparation for bias was protective regardless of nativity and gender. This study highlights the importance of considering social positions to better understand the role of RES in youth psychological adjustment.     

Trajectories of Ethnic–Racial Identity and Autonomy Among Mexican‐Origin Adolescent Mothers in the United States

This study examined trajectories of ethnic–racial identity (ERI) and autonomy development among Mexican‐origin adolescent females in the United States (N = 181; M_age at Wave 1 = 16.80 years, SD = 1.00) as they transitioned through the first 5 years of parenthood. Trajectories of ERI and autonomy also were examined in relation to psychosocial functioning. Unconditional latent growth models indicated significant growth in autonomy, ERI resolution, and ERI affirmation from middle to late adolescence. Conditional latent growth models indicated that autonomy and ERI exploration growth trajectories were positively associated with psychosocial adjustment. Although adolescent mothers are experiencing transitions that are not normative during adolescence, they also engage in normative developmental processes, and their engagement in such processes is linked with better adjustment.     

Perceived parental social support and psychological control predict depressive symptoms for lesbian,gay, bisexual,transgender, queer,or questioning youth in the United States

Salient practices in the parenting literature—support and control—have seldom been applied to understanding lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning (LGBTQ) youth mental health. We examine associations among perceived parental social support, psychological control, and depressive symptoms for LGBTQ youth in the United States (n = 536; M_age = 18.98; 48.1% women; 25.2% Black or African American; 37.1% Hispanic or Latino/a/x). Data were collected in 2011–2012. Results indicated joint effects of social support and psychological control predicting youth depressive symptoms. Multiple group analysis yielded a significant interaction of parenting practices for youth whose parent(s) did not know their LGBTQ identity. Findings support further consideration of parental support and control in relation to LGBTQ youth well-being.     

The Influence of Ethnic-Racial Identity Developmental Processes on Global Bicultural Competence Development

This study investigated ethnic-racial identity (ERI) developmental processes (i.e., exploration and resolution) as pathways for adolescents to develop global bicultural competence, or the ability to meet heritage and host cultural demands. The sample included 749 U.S. Mexican-origin youth (30% Mexico-born; 51% male) followed from early-to-late adolescence (M_age = 12.79–17.38 years). Longitudinal structural equation analyses revealed that youth’s sequential engagement in ERI exploration and resolution (from early-to-middle adolescence) promoted global bicultural competence in late adolescence. The findings highlight the benefits of achieving clarity about one’s ERI via self-exploration efforts for adolescents’ ability to respond effectively to bicultural demands. This study advances mechanisms via which ERI development may support youth adaptation to multiple cultural systems.     

Longitudinal Relations Among Parenting Styles,Prosocial Behaviors,and Academic Outcomes in U.S. Mexican Adolescents

This article examined parenting styles and prosocial behaviors as longitudinal predictors of academic outcomes in U.S. Mexican youth. Adolescents (N = 462; Wave 1 M_age = 10.4 years; 48.1% girls), parents, and teachers completed parenting, prosocial behavior, and academic outcome measures at 5th, 10th, and 12th grades. Authoritative parents were more likely to have youth who exhibited high levels of prosocial behaviors than those who were moderately demanding and less involved. Fathers and mothers who were less involved and mothers who were moderately demanding were less likely than authoritative parents to have youth who exhibited high levels of prosocial behaviors. Prosocial behaviors were positively associated with academic outcomes. Discussion focuses on parenting, prosocial behaviors, and academic attitudes in understanding youth academic performance.