Children's Evaluations of Decision-Making Procedures in Peer, Family, and School Contexts

Children's evaluations of decision-making procedures were examined in applications in different social contexts. Seventy-two children evenly divided into three grade levels (grades 1 – 2, 3 – 4, 5 – 6) were administered a structured interview requiring them to evaluate three decision-making procedures (consensus, majority rule, and authority-based) embedded in three social contexts (peer group, family, and school classroom) and to select the most appropriate decision-making procedure for two specific decisions: one expected to pull for procedures emphasizing children's autonomous decision making, and one expected to pull for adult authority. Judgments of decision-making procedures at all grade levels did not show a heteronomous acceptance of adult authority but rather were influenced by social context and type of decision. In general, consensus was preferred in peer and family contexts and authority-based procedures were preferred for school decisions about curriculum. Older children were more likely than younger children to consider how children's limited knowledge and competence may constrain their autonomous decision making.     

Urban and rural Chinese adolescents' judgments and reasoning about personal and group jurisdiction

This research applied social domain theory to illuminate reasoning about the perceived legitimacy and limits of group decision making (majority rule) among adolescents from urban and rural China (N = 160). Study 1 revealed that adolescents from both urban and rural China judged group decision making as acceptable for both social conventional and prudential issues, but not for personal issues or those that entailed possible harmful coercion of others. Study 2 revealed that personal jurisdiction develops later for rural than urban adolescents for certain issues (democratic rights to political participation and choice of friends). Results indicate that reasoning about group and personal jurisdiction in a non-Western society (China) is influenced by social domain, age, and environmental setting (modern vs. traditional).     

Children's Evaluations of Gender-Stereotypic Household Activities in the Family Context

Research Findings: The goal of this study was to analyze children's (N = 120) evaluations about parental decisions regarding gender-stereotypic household family activities. Children at 5, 8, and 10 years of age were individually interviewed. Contrary to prevailing findings, the majority of children used stereotypic expectations and social-conventional justifications to explain parental exclusion decisions; this pattern was more pronounced for male-stereotypic than female-stereotypic activities. Overall, children's social judgments revealed age-related increases in making stereotypic choices. Boys were more likely than girls to condone stereotypic expectations regarding father–son activities than mother–daughter activities. Practice or Policy: The results are discussed in terms of (a) social–cognitive reasoning about family decision making in the home and (b) gender-stereotypic expectations between parents and children in the home context.     

结构·秩序·宽容--论多数原则的限度

多数原则是民主决策的关键性规则.多数原则从诞生开始,就伴随着"限制多数,保护少数"的议题.文章认为可以从多数原则的结构特征、程序特性以及文化建构三个方面限制多数与保护少数.首先,多数的开放性为限制多数与保护少数提供理论前提;多数的可替换性为限制多数与保护少数提供现实基础;多数的流动性与可变性为限制多数与保护少数提供实践依据.其次,程序是多数原则自律约束的内控装置;程序是监督制约多数原则的平衡杠杆;程序是多数原则修正纠错的过滤器;程序是促进多数原则协调稳定发展的助推器.最后,可以通过相互延期补偿达成正和决策、给少数人更多的自主治理、建立多元主义共同体等途径,建立限制多数、保护少数的机制.     

Decision-making in interdisciplinary treatment teams

Interdisciplinary teams for the treatment of child abuse and neglect are becoming more common. Studies have shown that decisions made by groups who have had the opportunity to discuss their perspectives are more accurate than judgments made by individuals. Why this may be true is not clear. The purpose of the present study was to discover the procedures an interdisciplinary treatment team uses in making decisions. A single interdisciplinary incest treatment team was observed over a 15-month period. Open-ended interviews with team members also were conducted. Findings show that the interdisciplinary treatment team made its decisions using procedures analogous to procedures used in social research to establish reliability and validity. The decision-making process of the team was characterized by multiple observations of family members by multiple observers in multiple settings over time. This decision-making process is similar to processes used by many other treatment teams. The findings of the present research, then, are likely to be generalizable to other teams whose decision-making processes are similar.     

Scientific literacy for democratic decision-making

Scientifically literate citizens must be able to engage in making decisions on science-based social issues. In this paper, I start by showing examples of science curricula and policy documents that capitalise the importance of engaging future citizens in decision-making processes whether at the personal or at the societal levels. I elucidate the ideological underpinnings behind a number of the statements within those documents that have defined the trajectory of scientific literacy and have shaped what ought to be considered as personal and societal benefits. I argue that science curricula and policy documents can truly endorse scientific literacy when they embed principles of democratic education at their core. The latter entails fostering learning experiences where some of the underlying assumptions and political ideologies are brought to the conscious level and future citizens encouraged to reflect upon them critically and explicitly. Such a proposal empowers the future citizens to engage in critical deliberation on science-based social issues without taking the underlying status quo for granted. I end up the paper by situating the preparation of scientifically literate citizens within a framework of democratic education, discuss conditions through which a curriculum for scientific literacy can serve democratic decision-making processes, and provide modest recommendations.     

Heuristic principles and cognitive bias in decision making: Implications for assessment in school psychology

Research has indicated that the diagnoses and classification decisions made by professionals are often unreliable. People employ several heuristic strategies when making decisions under conditions of uncertainty. Use of these heuristics can have a detrimental effect on the decision-making process. This paper describes factors that may bias psychoeducational decision making and discusses three heuristic principles that affect decision making. The means by which school psychologists can be made aware of these heuristic principles and encouraged to consider them when making psychoeducational decisions are discussed. Other methods by which bias in the psychoeducational process can be reduced, including the use of statistical and actuarial-based assessment systems, the multitrait multimethod approach to multifactored assessment advanced by Gresham (1983), and direct instruction in reasoning and decision making are also discussed.     

The voice of the pupils: an experimental comparison of decisions made by elected pupil councils, pupils in referenda, and teaching staff

This article tests whether the form of decision-making used in school environments affects pupils’ views on the legitimacy of the decisions made, and of the decision-making procedure. Building on political science theory on democratic decision-making, it compares pupils’ reactions towards decisions made by pupil councils, by pupils via referendum, and by the teaching staff. The data come from a series of randomized scenario-style experiments in which participants (Swedish pupils involved in upper secondary education) were exposed to a questionnaire describing a decision-making situation. The results show that the form of decision-making used matters for pupils’ acceptance of the decision-making procedure, but not necessarily for their willingness to accept the outcome of decisions. Pupil referenda in particular were effective in creating procedural legitimacy.     

The Role of Agent and Social Context in Judgments of Freedom of Speech and Religion

This study examined children's, adolescents', and college students' judgments of the rights of child and adult agents to freedom of speech and religion in 3 social contexts: the general level of society, the school, and the family. Two hundred forty participants, evenly divided into 5 grade levels (mean ages 6,6, 8,5,10,6,12,4, and 22,7) made judgments of the legitimacy of authority prohibition, rule evaluation, generalizability, and rule violation for all freedom/social context/agent combinations. Concepts of freedom of speech and religion were found to emerge in the early elementary school years, and endorsements of freedoms were increasingly affected by social context and agent with age. College students were less likely than any other age group to affirm children's freedom of religion in the family context. Considerations of the mental competence and maturity of agents and the potential for harm to ensue from acting on freedoms played an important part in the decisions of older, but not younger, participants.     

中国农村基层民主制度实现路径分析

我国农村基层民主制度建设目前存在一些问题:贿选行为经常发生;农村财务没有充分公开,给村官暴富打开方便之门;农村党内民主制度存在诸多问题。产生这些问题的原因是多方面的:农村基层民主选举的法律缺位;民主决策机制无法保证;“两委矛盾”源于制度不规范。实现农村基层民主制度的路径在于:完善农村基层民主法律体系;改变村治权力授予方式;建立群众公认的干部选用机制以实现村党委会和村委会的活动纳入民主与法制轨道。积极推行在我国基层民主建设中的先进经验。     

剖析与建构：我国行政决策咨询制度法治化之思考

行政决策咨询制度是行政决策体制的有机组成部分,也是实现行政决策科学化、民主化的客观保障,应当成为我国行政管理法治化的重要内容。我国现行行政决策咨询制度的法治化程度还非常低,导致实践中行政决策失误现象严重。有鉴于此,应当以二元化的立法模式对行政决策咨询的基本原则、适用范围、具体程序、法律责任等内容进行系统规范,通过完善的制度建构以提升我国行政决策咨询的法治化水平。     

论以人为本的行政决策之三大原则

行政决策的以人为本，是“十一五”期间全面落实科学发展观，推进国民经济平稳发展。推进决策科学化、民主化之关键所在。这要求我们在决策的制定与实施过程中，必须坚持以民为邦本、以民为主及予民以刺的原则。     

Embodied Cognition: Somatic Markers, Purposes and Emotional Orientations

We describe the “somatic marker hypothesis” proposed by Damasio (1996) to account for the ability of most people to make decisions quickly and continually in the course of their lives. We relate this hypothesis to two other theoretical constructs, emotional orientations and purposes, which we have used in our research on students' reasoning and teachers' decision making. Given that somatic markers are a part of unconscious mental activity, they cannot be observed by introspective reflection. How then can we research something we cannot see? Beginning with the hypothesis that somatic markers influence actions, we observe, particularly, the actions of student teachers, teachers and children in mathematics classrooms at points where they make decisions. This process is illustrated through examples both of teaching and learning in mathematics, and through the account (see Op't Eynde and Hannula, this issue) of ‘Frank’ reflecting on his decision-making in mathematical activity. We use the case of Frank to illustrate some differences between viewing mathematical activity from our perspective and from those of some other contributors to this special issue. The connections between emotional orientations, somatic markers and purposes are further illustrated by two examples drawn from our research into teacher development and students' reasoning processes.     

Evaluations of Children's Gender Stereotypic Activities by Korean Parents and Nonparental Adults Residing in the United States

Objective. To determine how parents evaluate decisions about children's autonomy, Korean mothers and fathers as well as nonparental female and male adults, all living in the United States, were interviewed about parental decisions regarding children's engagement in gender consistent and gender inconsistent extracurricular activities. Design. A homogeneous sample of parents and nonparental adults (N = 80) participated to control for social experience beyond parental status. Participants were interviewed about whether it was acceptable for parents to allow their sons and daughters to engage in gender consistent (boy plays baseball, girl takes ballet), gender inconsistent (boy takes ballet, girl plays baseball), and gender neutral (boy goes to a sleepover, girl goes to a sleepover) peer activities, along with questions about autonomy, gender preferences, parental jurisdiction, cultural change, and stereotype knowledge. Results. Whereas all participants promoted autonomy, parents were more likely to sacrifice autonomy to conform to gender stereotypic expectations than were nonparental adults and to use social-conventional reasoning to justify their evaluations. Parents were more likely than nonparental adults to promote boys' autonomy than girls' autonomy in the absence of stereotypic expectations but were less likely to do so in gender inconsistent contexts. Conclusions. Korean parents and nonparental adults differ in their decisions about children's engagement in gender related peer activities. In contrast to nonparental adults, parents used multiple forms of social reasoning when evaluating children's autonomy in the context of gender expectations. These findings shed light on the complex decision-making that parents engage in when granting children autonomy and promoting social development.     

科学决策与民主程序及约束机制

认真贯彻民主集中制,严格民主程序,健全约束机制,是实施科学决策的前提条件;民主程序的重要环节;确定议题(或议案)召开适当的正式会议;实行表决作出决策;制定执行方案明确分工;检查监督赏罚分明。     

行政决策软约束问题研究

行政决策是政府行政管理的核心,科学、民主的行政决策孕育在完善的法律制度与科学的执政理念之中。对于行政决策来说,法律制度的硬性约束固然重要,但是行政决策主体的政绩观软约束更为关键。科学的政绩考核办法、民主的行政决策氛围、优化的制度运作环境可以有力推进行政决策的科学化、民主化和法治化进程。     

公共选择视阈下中国大学学术组织决策的困境与出路

本文从公共选择理论的视角,探讨了大学学术组织决策过程中存在的决策规则、投票活动以及权力制衡等三大困境,对此提出了革新规则、优化过程和平衡权力等三大克服困境的举措.     

健全党内民主制度体系的路径论析

制度更具根本性、全局性、稳定性和长期性,发展党内民主,健全制度体系是基础。健全党内制度体系,关键是要进一步完善党内选举制度,完善候选人产生程序,规范差额选举,配套相关制度;完善党内决策制度,健全党代会、全委会、常委会制度,细化工作制度,完善决策程序,健全和完善决策的纠错、评价制度,充分利用互联网、智库等平台,创新决策制度,推进决策科学化、民主化;完善党内外监督制度,在党内监督方面,强化监督意识、加强制度设计、完善监督体制、健全监督机制,在党外监督方面,加强民主党派监督、新闻舆论监督和群众监督;完善党员权利保障制度,细化并落实党员的知情权、参与权、决策权,完善权利救济制度。     

Do Senior Secondary Students Possess the Moral Maturity to Negotiate Class Rules?

Abstract

Two studies are reported using written question sheets to assess attitudes to and moral reasoning about class rules among a total of 117 senior secondary school students and 87 trainee teachers. The studies confirmed the prediction of the multidimensional control model of the development of moral reasoning of Langford (1991a, b; 1992a, b) that the moral reasoning of such students about this topic is much more mature than predicted by Kohlbergian theory, their most important source of information for making moral decisions in this area being the general welfare of students and teachers. Other detailed predictions of the multidimensional control model were also, in the main, verified. It was found that, although the great majority of senior secondary students thought we ought to have those class rules that are necessary to protect the right of others to learn, there exist a small minority whose main aim is revenge upon schools and teachers and a rather larger minority who are not even prepared to uphold such rules in theory when it comes to classes in which they are not interested. It was concluded that while it is possible to reach agreement with the great majority of students of this age about rules to protect the learning of others, sanctions are needed to back class rules opposed by a minority even in theory.     

构建节约型社会的视角下政府宏观经济决策科学化路径探析

科学化、民主化决策是建立节约型社会的重要途径,决策失误将会带来巨大的经济损失、资源浪费甚至会引起社会的不安定。失误原因有权力过分集中;不科学的政绩观和政绩考核标准;对市场经济的驾驭能力不高等等。政府决策必须科学化民主化。