Diagnostic utility of the number of Wisc‐III subtests deviating from mean performance among students with learning disabilities

This paper examined the diagnostic utility of subtest variability, as represented by the number of subtests that deviate from examinees' mean IQ scores, for identifying students with a learning disability (LD). Participants consisted of the 2,200 students in the WISC‐III normative sample and 684 students (Mdngrade = 5; Mage = 10.8) identified as LD. The number of subtests deviating from examinees' Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ by ±3 points for normative and exceptional samples were contrasted via Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) analyses. Results indicated that LD students did not differ from normative sample children at levels above chance. It was concluded that deviation of individual subtest scores from mean IQ scores has no diagnostic utility for hypothesizing about students with learning disabilities. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Cognitive functioning as measured by the WISC-R: do children with learning disabilities have distinctive patterns of performance?

Patterns of performance on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) have been proposed as useful tools for the identification of children with learning disabilities (LD). However, most of the studies of WISC-R patterns in children with LD have been plagued by the lack of a typically achieving comparison group, by failure to measure individual patterns, and by the lack of a precise definition of LD. In an attempt to address these flaws and to assess the presence of patterns of performance on the WISC-R, we examined data from 121 children with typical achievement (TA), 143 children with reading disabilities (RD), and 100 children with a specific arithmetic disability (AD), ages 6 to 16 years. The results indicated that the RD and AD groups had significantly lower scores than the TA group on all the Verbal IQ subtests. Many of the children with AD and RD showed a significant difference between Verbal and Performance IQ scores, but so did many of the typically achieving children. Although there were some children with LD who showed the predicted patterns, typically, 65% or more of the children with LD did not. Furthermore, a proportion of the TA group-generally not significantly smaller than that of the RD and AD groups-showed discrepancy patterns as well. Our results indicate that the patterns of performance on intelligence tests are not reliable enough for the diagnosis of LD in individual children. Therefore, it might be more profitable to base the detection of an individual's LD on patterns of achievement test scores.     

Differential ability scales: Profiles of learning-disabled subtypes

The purpose of this study was to determine whether distinct subgroups of children with learning disabilities could be identified using a single, recently developed instrument—the Differential Ability Scales (DAS). Ward's method of cluster analysis was used to group 83 school-verified children with learning disabilities from the standardization sample. The following six subgroups were identified: (a) generalized, (b) high functioning, (c) normal, (d) underachievement, (e) borderline, and (f) dyseidetic. Not all subgroups displayed the expected discrepancy between intelligence and achievement associated with the current definitions of I.D. In subsequent discriminant analyses, both achievement and diagnostic subtests were necessary for accuracy in classification. This study provided evidence of the DAS's ability to diagnose the learning disabled differentially and provided distinct profiles for LD subgroups. Administration of the diagnostic subtests along with achievement subtests can provide the clinician with valuable diagnostic information for LD.     

Discriminative validity of the WRAML with ADHD and LD children

The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML; Sheslow & Adams, 1990) is a nationally standardized instrument designed to assess memory and learning skills in children and adolescents. This study assessed the relationship of WRAML scores to WISC-III and WJ-R results in three groups: (a) LD children with reading difficulties, (b) ADHD children, and (c) nonhandicapped referred children. Total sample size was 120. Discriminant function analysis demonstrated that the WRAML provided little distinguishing information for ADHD and LD children. Likewise, the usefulness of the Learning subtests is questionable. It is suggested that inclusion of working memory tasks that require reconfiguration of material, problem solving, and more complexity may be more beneficial in identifying processing weaknesses with suspected ADHD and LD youngsters. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Morphological analysis,phonological analysis and learning to read French: a longitudinal study

This paper presents a longitudinal study, from kindergarten to secondgrade, which aims to examine the relationship between morphologicalanalysis, phonological analysis and learning to read. Three phonologicalawareness tasks, five derivational and four inflectional subtests wereadministered to fifty children at each of the three levels. Evolution ofperformance was analyzed through the three years. Data showed that withthe exception of two subtests, performance increased from kindergarten tofirst grade and from first grade to second grade, without reaching ceilingperformance in second grade, at least for morphological subtests. Linksbetween morphological and phonological analyses were very strong: inparticular, syllable segmentation was highly correlated with themorphological subtests in kindergarten while phonemic segmentation wascorrelated with morphological subtests in first and second grade. Therewere also strong links between morphological analysis and reading.Regression analyses showed that while phonological awarenessexplained a major part of variance in first grade, both phonologicaland morphological scores explained significant part of variance of bothdecoding and comprehension reading scores in second grade. Thus, thislongitudinal study contributes to the evidence of a link between bothphonological and morphological analysis and learning to read French.     

The reliability and validity of an interactive arithmetic test

A sample of 331 primary school children from seven primary schools, from Years 3 through 7, participated in this study to determine the reliability of a computer resident interactive arithmetic test, using both the method of a single sitting and that of parallel forms. Reliability coefficients up to .96 were calculated for scoring rates by the single sitting methods and up to .87 by the method of parallel forms. The study also attempted to determine the validity of the interactive test by comparing it with the arithmetic subtests of the Key Math Test (KMT, Connolly et al ., 1971). Positive, but weak, correlations up to .65 were recorded, reflecting differences in the medium of administration and assessment methodology of the two tests.     

Subtest scatter and Kaufman regroupings on the WISC-R in non-learning-disabled and learning-disabled children

The present study was undertaken to examine scatter analysis and Kaufman regroupings of WISC-R scores. Thirty-one non-learning-disabled children (NLD) and 29 learning-disabled children (LD) determined by individual IQ and achievement scores served as subjects. Scatter indices were computed within the Verbal and Performance subtests as well as between the Verbal and Performance IQ scales. Also, the regrouping categories proposed by Kaufman (1979) were examined. A significant difference in Verbal and Performance IQs was found between the LD and NLD group. Significantly more students in the LD group exhibited the Kaufman regrouping pattern than in the NLD group (p < .01). These results suggest that Kaufman regroupings and Verbal-Performance scatter analysis may be used to assist in diagnosing LD children.     

Using educational placement in third grade to select and validate a preschool screening measure

The early detection of children with mild learning problems remains a problem. New screening tests are being developed that will be more effective in identifying children who fall into this “difficult to identify” group. This study examined the predictive validity of one potential screening test. The scores of 268 children on each task of a nine‐task preschool cognitive battery were evaluated in terms of the accuracy with which they predicted the classification of those same children into regular education (n = 254) or special education (n = 14) 4 years later when the children were in third grade. A classification accuracy level of 79% was achieved for the exceptional children, and a classification level of 70% for the normally achieving children. Racial/ethnic status, testing language, and socioeconomic status all impacted the children's screening performance. Lower screening scores and a greater proportion of the sample with scores below the cut were associated with minority status, not being tested in English, and lower socioeconomic status. Preschool testing in Spanish or both English and Spanish was associated with poorer achievement 4 years later. Many of the children not in special education, but with a screening score below 13, had serious academic problems in third grade that were reflected in their low percentile scores on one or more subtests of the Stanford Achievement Test. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 40: 565–582, 2003.     

Effects of the TutorBright tutoring programme on the reading and mathematics skills of children in foster care: a randomised controlled trial

ABSTRACT

We evaluated the effects of TutorBright tutoring on the reading and mathematics skills of children in family foster care, examined several potential moderators of the impact of tutoring, and explored possible ‘spill-over’ effects on the children’s executive functioning and behavioural difficulties and on their caregivers’ level of involvement in schoolwork in the home. The sample consisted of 70 children in care in Ontario, Canada. At the pre-test, the children were aged 5–16 years (M = 10.41, SD = 2.94) and enrolled in school grades 1–11 (M = 5.53, SD = 2.90). Thirty-four children were randomly assigned to tutoring and 36 to a waiting list control condition. Seven subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ-III) achievement test served as outcome measures. The tutored children made statistically greater gains than those in the control group on the WJ-III subtests of Reading Fluency, Reading Comprehension, and Mathematics Calculation, but not on Word Reading, Spelling, Math Fluency, or Applied Math Problems. Age, executive functioning, caregiver controlling involvement in schoolwork, and self-reported post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms were found to moderate the effectiveness of tutoring. There were no spill-over effects of tutoring. The implications of the results for improving foster children’s reading and mathematics skills were discussed.     

Diagnostic Utility of the Bannatyne WISC‐III Pattern

Regrouping Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children‐Third Edition (WISC‐III) subtests into Bannatyne's spatial, conceptual, and sequential patterns has been thought by many to identify children with learning disabilities (LD). This study investigated the prevalence and diagnostic utility of WISC‐III Bannatyne patterns by comparing 1,302 children with LD to 2,158 children in the WISC‐III normative sample. Further analysis was conducted on a subsample of students with specific reading disabilities. Results indicated that the presence of the Bannatyne WISC‐III pattern would not lead to decisions that are useful in differentiating children with LD from children without LD. For example, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, measured by the area under the curve (AUC), indicated that the Bannatyne WISC‐III pattern exhibited low diagnostic utility (AUC = 0.54–0.55). Due to its inaccuracy, use of the Bannatyne WISC‐III pattern is not recommended.     

The WISC-R and evidence of item bias for native-American Navajos

The study investigated cultural bias in the 79 items of the three verbal tests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R). The Information, Similarities, and Vocabulary subtests were administered to 40 Anglo and 40 Native- American Navajo subjects matched for grade level. The responses of the two groups of subjects on individual items were analyzed by log-linear technique using the likelihood ratio chi-square statistic. The findings revealed that performance of subjects was homogeneous across groups on most of the items of three verbal subtests of the WISC-R. Only 15 (19%) of the 79 items comprising Information, Similarities, and Vocabulary subtests were found to be biased against the Navajo sample. Five of these items are from the Information, four from the Similarities, and the remaining six items are from the Vocabulary subtest. Implications of these findings for the psychoeducational assessment of minority children were discussed.     

An investigation of the ability of selected instruments to discriminate areas of exceptional class designation

Ninety exceptional children—30 emotionally handicapped (EH), 30 learning disabled (LD), and 30 educable mentally retarded (EMR)—attending public, self-contained classrooms in the Southeast were systematically selected from a master list of all exceptional students (1,355) who had been referred for placement within the last 4 years. All available data used in the placement process, i.e., WISC-R profiles, Key Math scores, and teacher rating scale scores, were obtained by a search of the children's permanent records. To determine the relative effectiveness of the assessment devices in contributing to appropriate placement decisions, a MANOVA with subsequent univariate analyses and multiple discriminant function analyses was employed. Results indicated that both the LD and the EH groups differed significantly from the EMR group, and that classification results for all groups were inadequate.     

Patterns of performance on the Stroop Color and Word Test in children with learning,attentional, and psychiatric disabilities

The study presented here investigated the performance of children with learning, psychiatric, and attentional disabilities on the Stroop Color and Word Test. Forty‐three children diagnosed with a full battery of tests as learning disabled (LD [reading]) in grades K through 6 were matched on age, gender, ethnicity, and grade with 43 normal controls. They were also matched with groups of 43 children with psychiatric disorders and 43 children with attentional problems. All subjects were given the Stroop test, which took about 4 minutes per subject. The results indicated clear differences between the groups, with the LD and the psychiatric/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) groups generating unique profiles different from the normal controls. The children with LD showed slower reading speed and less interference, while the subjects with ADHD and diagnoses showed impairment only on the Color‐Word score. A discriminant analysis using the three basic Stroop scales was able to significantly differentiate the LD group from the non–learning‐disabled (NLD) group (89%) and the LD group from a joint Psychiatric/ADHD group (86%). However, results were poorer for differentiating a joint LD/ADHD group from the NLD group (68%) and the LD from the ADHD group (59%). © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Facilitation of Information Processing in Learning Disabled Children Using Computer Games

Abstract The aim of the study was to improve the information processing and concentration skills of learning disabled (LD) children by using computer games in a procedure that enhances self‐verbalisation and mediated learning. Of the 21 LD children who participated in the study, 14 were trained in the specific procedure, while at the same time the seven children in the control group participated in regular tutorial activities in small groups. Subsequently, in the second training period, the control group was instructed to play commercial strategic games, with no stress on self‐verbalisation procedures and the experimental group participated in regular classroom tutorial activities, without computers. The following measures were used to assess the effect of the training: MFFT, Progressive Matrices and three subtests of the WISC‐R. The results demonstrated that the computer games presented within the framework of self‐verbalisation procedures and peer‐interaction facilitate the information processing of LD children. The interactions of passive and impulsive LD children with computer‐related activities should be examined in future research within the context of their ecological environment.     

Familial patterns of learning disabilities

Extended families of 12 young adults (9 LD, 3 non-LD) were given a battery of tests and questionnaires, and 131 persons, ranging in age from 6 to 85, were classified as LD or non-LD on the basis of subtest scores 1 SD below the mean or less on subtests of the PIAT and WRAT achievement tests. Pedigree analysis indicated that LD was strongly familial, with the most probable mode involving a major gene effect, but the type of disability (reading/ math) was not directly inherited. Autoimmune disorders were significantly correlated (P<.005) with LD, especially in families in which LD remained a major handicap into adulthood, a trait that also varied between families. In two of the LD families, adults showed little evidence of the reading/spelling deficits they had shown when tested as children, while adults in other families failed to make gains in reading and spelling.     

Kindergarten reasoning and achievement in grades K-3

Performance of kindergarten children on reasoning (Piaget tasks of logical thinking), visual-motor integration, and verbal development was related to achievement scores in kindergarten, second grade, and third grade. Subjects were 52 children in the kindergarten classes of a middle-class, suburban/rural school. Reasoning and visual-motor integration were related to achievement on the Metropolitan Achievement Test at the end of kindergarten. For the 43 children remaining in second grade, there was a relationship between reasoning in kindergarten and achievement on the Reading and Math Concepts sections of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. For the 38 children remaining in third grade, kindergarten reasoning was related to total and Vocabulary scores of the California Achievement Test. Kindergarten visual-motor integration and verbal development were not related to achievement test performance at the end of the second and third grade for these subjects. Early intervention programs that encourage the development of thinking and match the child's reasoning to his academic tasks may stimulate both reasoning and achievement.     

Oral language facility,verbal intelligence and performance on tests of psycholinguistic ability

The performance of 152 children in the age range 7 years 5 months to 7 years 11 months on a battery comprising the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA), the English Picture Vocabulary Test 2 (EPVT), a test of auditory discrimination, a sentence repetition test and an orally administered verbal intelligence test was compared with the complexity and fluency of spoken language recorded from each child. Only a moderate correlation was found between the ITPA total score and the length‐complexity index (LCI) from the language samples. Moderate correlations were found between the LCI and several auditory‐vocal channel subtests from the ITPA; however, with the influence of verbal intelligence partialled out most of these were reduced to low or nonsignificant levels. The scores from the Manual Expression subtest in the visual‐motor channel were found to correlate as highly with LCI as did the ITPA total score.

This relationship was maintained to two situations, (i) when the factor of verbal intelligence was controlled statistically, (ii) when a sub‐sample of subjects within a narrow IQ range was selected for separate analysis. The Verbal Expression subtest also showed moderate correlation with LCI in four out of five analyses, thus lending support to the “process” construct in the ITPA model. No connection was found between any of the psycholinguistic subtests and fluency of language production. The validity of the ITPA as a test of oral language performance was questioned.     

The Role of Parental Math Anxiety and Math Attitude in Their Children’s Math Achievement

The present study investigated the antecedents and consequences of children’s math anxiety and math attitude. A total of 595 students aged 10 to 15 years (5th to 10th grades) and 1 parent of each (mother or father) participated in the study. The study was conducted in India, with the study sample drawn from schools in South-West Punjab. Math anxiety of parents and their children was measured using the Mathematics Anxiety Scale Short Version (MARS-SV), the Mathematics Anxiety Scale for Elementary School Students (MARS-E), and the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale for Adolescents (MARS-A). Math attitude was assessed with the Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory (ATMI). A math achievement test was constructed for each grade level based on their curriculum. Path analyses were conducted to test the suggested conceptual model, and the results indicate that parental math anxiety and math attitude act as precursors to their children’s math anxiety and math attitude and further influence the math achievement of their children.     

A study of handwriting in written stories of normal and learning disabled children

Written stories of normally achieving and learning disabled children in grades one through three were compared, using a Handwriting Evaluation Scale designed for this study. The subjects also were given tests for receptive language, figure copying and spelling. The Non-LD and LD groups differed on figure copying, spelling and written productivity, but not receptive language. The Non-LD grade level groups differed significantly on two components of the handwriting scale (Letter Size and Control), while the LD grade level groups differed on three components (Letter Formation, Alignment and Spacing, and Letter Size). The most pronounced differences between the LD and normally achieving children were on Formation and Size. A separate analysis of the third grade stories revealed that handwriting was less related to productivity than spelling and visual-motor skills. Nevertheless, the results indicated that many LD students have weak visual-spatial-motor skills. Implications for intervention are discussed.