Effects of type of reinforcement on the intelligence test performance of retarded black children

This study examined the effects of different types of reinforcement on the performance of black males who had been diagnosed as being mildly mentally retarded, using the WISC-R. After each correct response, participants were given no reinforcement, a candy reward, traditional social reinforcement, or culturally relevant social reinforcement. Children given tangible or culturally relevant rewards obtained significantly higher scores than did children given either no reinforcement or traditional social reinforcement.     

Correlates of Academic Overachievement,Nondiscrepant Achievement,and Learning Disability in ADHD,Autism, and General Population Samples

ABSTRACT

Little is known about the characteristics of academic overachievers, children whose achievement significantly exceeds IQ. Correlates of overachievement (achievement test scores ≥ 1 SD above IQ), nondiscrepant achievement, and learning disability (LD; achievement ≥ 1 SD below IQ) were analyzed in 1,543 children (739 ADHD, 285 autism, and 519 general population), 6–16 years of age. Significant correlates of the reading and math achievement groups were diagnosis (autism greatest overachievement, ADHD greatest LD), IQ (lowest in overachievers and highest in LD), and Working Memory scores relative to the child’s IQ (close to or exceeding IQ in overachievers and lower than IQ in LD). Demographics (age, sex, race, and parent occupation) and parent and teacher ratings of psychopathology (e.g., behavior problems, anxiety, and depression) and personality characteristics (e.g., motivation and self-confidence) did not contribute significantly more to predicting overachievement and LD beyond that explained by IQ, diagnosis, and working memory. These findings suggest an underlying neurobiological etiology for both overachievement and LD.     

The relative value of reading ability and IQ as predictors of teacher-reported behavior problems

Measures of early family adversity, pre-school-age IQ, school-age IQ, and reading ability were obtained from 779 Dunedin children. The data were used to examine the role of reading ability in the relationship between intellectual performance and teacher-reported behavior problems. Results of regression analyses showed that family adversity and pre-school-age IQ predicted problem behavior during the first year at school. However, reading scores accounted for a larger proportion of the variance in the later behavior problem scores than did school-age IQ scores, and when reading ability was entered in the regression equation before IQ, then reading but not IQ significantly predicted change in problem behavior during the primary school years. The results indicated that the association between IQ scores and problem behavior was mediated by reading ability and that a measure of school-age IQ has limited usefulness for models of primary school-age problem behavior.     

The intellectual profile of abused and neglected children in the Philippines: An analysis of SB5 IQ scores of sexually abused,physically abused and neglected children

Child abuse and neglect have been associated with cognitive deficits, among other effects on child development. This study explores the prediction that child abuse and neglect has an impact on Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales 5th Edition (SB5) IQ scores, in relation to gender, age and type of abuse experienced. 300 children with experiences of abuse and neglect were included in the study, comprising 100 sexually abused, 100 physically abused and 100 neglected children. Overall, all scores on the SB5 were found to be significantly lower than the minimum average scores on the test. Verbal IQ (VIQ) scores were likewise found to be significantly lower than Nonverbal IQ (NVIQ) scores. Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) scores did not reveal heterogeneity when gender was factored in. Age and type of abuse (with a moderate effect size) on the other hand, showed significant differences among groups. Statistical analyses of SB5 Factor Index Scores revealed that abused children, in general, have significantly higher Visual-Spatial Processing (VS) and Quantitative Reasoning (QR) scores and lower scores in Knowledge (KN). There was a large effect size found in such an analysis. Age (with a large effect size), gender and type of abuse (with moderate effect sizes) give significant variations to this obtained profile.     

More Later: Delay of Gratification and Thought About the Future in Children

We investigated whether individual differences in future time perception and the detail with which future events are imagined are related to children’s delay of gratification. We administered a delay choice task (real rewards), a delay discounting task (hypothetical rewards), a novel future time perception measure, an episodic future thinking (EFT) interview and IQ measures to a sample of 7- to 11-year-olds (N = 132) drawn from a urban predominately white population in N. Ireland. We found a strong correlation between delay choice and delay discounting. Future time perception and EFT were related to delay discounting, however only the relation with future time perception survived controlling for age and IQ. Children who showed greater compression of future time periods were the steepest discounters.     

Use of an abbreviated version of the WISC-R with learning disabled children

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) was administered to 56 learning disabled children, using standard assessment procedures and format as outlined by Wechsler. Abbreviated IQ scores were then derived by applying the Kennedy-Elder formula, and equation that uses five WISC-R subtests with varied weightings. Comparisons between the standard IQ scores and the abbreviated IQ scores were evaluated. A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient of .83 and a non-significant t-test between the mean IQs suggested the two scores were interchangeable. However, frequent IQ classification changes (23%) rendered the K-E format unacceptable for this population.     

Screening for giftedness with the Slosson and the scale for rating behavioral characteristics of superior students

Children who had been nominated as potential candidates for gifted programs were assessed to determine the relationships among certain behavioral and intellectual characteristics. Records were compiled listing 132 first- through eighth-grade children's race, sex, age, grade level, Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT) IQ scores, Scale for Rating Behavioral Characteristics of Superior Students (SRBCSS) scores, and WISC-R IQs. Only children achieving SIT IQs of 130 or higher were included. A regression equation for the prediction of a WISC-R Full Scale IQ score from a given SIT score was computed and compared to that developed for predicting the WISC-R IQ in another study. All variables except SIT IQ were poor predictors of WISC-R IQ scores. A moderate correlation was computed between SIT and WISC-R Verbal and Full Scale IQ scores. A somewhat lower, but still significant, degree of relationship was found between SIT and WISC-R Performance IQ scores. Some difficulties with using the SIT as a screen for gifted programs are discussed.     

The relationship between the WISC-R and WRAT-R for a sample of rural referred children

WISC-R Verbal and Performance IQ scores obtained from a sample of 124 referred children were correlated with WRAT-R achievement scores. The Verbal IQ was found to predict Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic. The Performance IQ did not add significantly to the predictions. The results were consistent with earlier studies that examined the relationship of the WISC-R to the WRAT.     

The relationship between IQ and reading disabilities in English-speaking Canadian and Spanish children

This study was designed to examine the role of intelligence (IQ) in the definition of reading disabilities (RD) in languages with different orthographic systems. A sample of 94 Spanish children and 157 English-speaking Canadian children with RD was classified into four groups on the basis of IQ scores from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (< 80; 81-90; 91-109; 110-140). We examined the reading and spelling skills of Canadian and Spanish children as a function of Full Scale, Verbal, and Performance IQ scores. Significant differences between the languages were found when reading performance was analyzed as a function of Verbal IQ scores, in that there were some differences between the groups of Canadian children with RD but not between the groups of Spanish children. The Canadian children with Verbal IQ scores < 80 demonstrated relatively lower performance in reading and spelling skills than the Canadian groups with higher IQ scores. There were differences in reading tasks as a function of Performance IQ in English but not in Spanish. The differences in the role of IQ as a function of orthographic systems may relate to the greater significance of visual-orthographic as opposed to phonological processing in English.     

The WISC-R as a predictor of WRAT performance

This study investigated the efficacy of predicting academic achievement as measured by the WRAT, using the Verbal and Performance scores of the WISC-R as predictors. Both tests were given to 155 children referred for psychological evaluations in a four-county area in southeastern Nebraska, and a multiple regression analysis was conducted where the Verbal and Performance IQ scores were conjointly regressed on Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic standard scores from the WRAT. The results indicated that the Performance IQ did not significantly predict academic achievement, and that the Verbal IQ significantly predicted only Reading and Arithmetic scores. Generated regression equations were provided.     

Scatter on the WISC as an indicator of intellectual potential

The study was undertaken to investigate the relationship between subtest scatter on the WISC and higher intellectual potential. All subjects at one time obtained Full Scale IQ scores within the retarded range. Group I consisted of those children who upon reexamination with the WISC obtained Full Scale IQ scores of 75 or below, while Group 2 consisted of those children whose Full Scale IQ scores were now found to be nonretarded upon reexamination. The results indicated that the scatter on the initial examinations failed to predict the future group membership. Irrespective of group membership, scatter was found not to be related to change in Full Scale IQ scores. It was concluded that subtest scatter is a poor indicator of the presence of higher intellectual potential. It was also suggested that these findings are relevant to the WISC-R.     

INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF CREATIVITY AND IQ ON NINTH-GRADE ACHIEVEMENT

The interactive effects of IQ and creativity upon ninth-grade achievement were examined, with special focus upon the IQ threshold concept of Torrance He hypothesized that achievement is predicted better by IQ than by creativity below the IQ threshold, while IQ validity decreases as creativity validity increases above the threshold. This implies an IQ X Creativity interactive effect on achievement. If an IQ threshold exists, regression weights for IQ X Creativity interactive predictors should be statistically significant when included in multiple regression equations. Three creativity factor scores were estimated and were each multiplied by IQ to define three moderated or interactive predictor variables. A slight though statistically significant increase in validity resulted by adding the moderated variables to IQ and the three factor scores in multiple regression equations. Thus, there was weak support for the existence of an IQ threshold, but the regression of achievement on creativity decreased rather than increased with higher IQ.     

The long-term stability of WISC-R scores in mildly retarded and learning-disabled children

This study addresses the need for systematic longitudinal research documenting the stability of WISC-R scores in special education populations. WISC-R scores of 100 learning-disabled and 60 mildly retarded children retested on three separate occasions at three-year intervals were examined. The stability of WISC-R scores was evaluated according to three different criteria: (a) the consistency of group means over time, (b) the frequency of significant changes in individual scores, and (c) correlations between administrations as an index of stability of subjects' relative positions in the group. Different results were obtained depending on the criterion considered. Examination of group means and correlation coefficients indicated that Full Scale IQ was fairly stable over a period of six years for both learning-disabled and mildly retarded samples. However, greater variability was noted when examining the frequency of changes in individual subject's scores. Verbal IQ and Performance IQ demonstrated somewhat more variability by all criteria examined. The implications of these results with regard to the importance assigned to IQ in special education classification decisions, the usefulness of retesting IQ in three-year reevaluations, and the efficacy of special education are discussed.     

The relative roles of IQ and cognitive processes in reading disability

The purpose of the present study was to explore the relative roles of IQ and cognitive processes in reading performance. A sample of 443 Spanish children (264 male, 179 female) ranging in age from 7 to 13 years were classified into four groups according to IQ scores (<80, 80–90, 90–110, >110) and reading disabled (RD) and normally achieving readers (NR) were compared. The findings indicate that IQ scores were not related to the differences between children with RD and NR. We found that reading‐related cognitive deficits do differentiate between RD and NR children. Therefore, IQ scores do not make a significant contribution to our understanding of reading disability.     

Relationship between WISC-R and WRAT in children referred for learning difficulties

Correlations between the WISC-R Full, Verbal, Performance, and Freedom from Distractibility Scale IQs, WISC-R subtest scaled scores, and Wide Range Achievement Test Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic standard scores were computed for a sample of 114 children (64 boys, 50 girls), aged 6 to 16 years, who were referred for psychological evaluation because of academic or learning difficulties. The Full Scale IQ, Verbal Scale IQ, and Freedom from Distractibility IQ correlated moderately with the three achievement area standard scores (rs of .48 to .59). However, the Performance Scale IQ correlated minimally with reading and spelling scores (rs of .26 and .27), but moderately with arithmetic scores (r = .40). The results support the concurrent validity of the WISC-R.     

Instructors Learn to Help Students Apply Principles

Abstract

The Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests, verbal and nonverbal, were administered to 115 eighth-grade boys and 150 eighth-grade girls who had taken the tests in grade three or four. Estimated true changes in IQ from grades three and four to grade eight were calculated. It was found that 1) estimated true (E.T.) nonverbal changes were more than three times as great as (E.T.) verbal changes for both boys and girls, 2) both verbal and nonverbal IQ scores tended to rise, 3) grades three, four, and eight verbal IQ scores correlated more highly with each other than did grades three, four, and eight nonverbal IQ scores, and 4) there was no significant product moment correlation between (E.T.) verbal and (E.T.) nonverbal IQ change scores.     

Estimating Wisc‐III scores for special education students using the Dumont‐Faro short form

The Dumont‐Faro short form was used to estimate Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children‐III (WISC‐III) Full Scale IQ scores for 45 special education students in a rural setting. Using the validation criteria proposed by Resnick and Entin (1971), results demonstrated that IQ scores generated by the Dumont‐Faro short form were positively correlated (r= .96) with the WISC‐III Full Scale scores. A significant mean difference in scores and an IQ misclassification rate of 44%, however, challenge the utility of the Dumont‐Faro short form for estimating WISC‐III Full Scale IQ. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Comparison of the General Ability Measure for Adults and the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test with college students

Ninety‐four college students were administered the GAMA and KAIT. GAMA IQs were significantly and moderately correlated with KAIT Fluid, Crystallized and Composite IQs, supporting the convergent validity of this instrument. Although significant correlations between measures emerged and nonsignificant differences were found between mean scores across these instruments, GAMA IQ scores did not accurately predict KAIT Composite IQ scores when GAMA IQ scores were compared to KAIT Composite IQs. Similarly, when the sample was divided into two groups by ability level, GAMA IQs accurately estimated the intelligence for individuals of Average and Below Average intelligence, but underestimated the KAIT Composite IQ scores by 4 points for the Above Average group. Implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided. © 2002, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics

We examine differences in intelligence test scores of black and white 5-year-olds. The Infant Health and Development Program data set includes 483 low birthweight premature children who were assessed with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. These children had been followed from birth, with data on neighborhood and family poverty, family structure, family resources, maternal characteristics, and home environment collected over the first 5 years of life. Black children's IQ scores were 1 SD lower than those of white children. Adjustments for ethnic differences in poverty reduced the ethnic differential by 52%. Adjustments for maternal education and whether the head of household was female did not reduce the ethnic difference further. However, differences in home environment reduced the ethnic differential by an additional 28%. Adjustments for economic and social differences in the lives of black and white children all but eliminate differences in the IQ scores between these two groups.     

The effect of type of reinforcer and reinforcement schedule on performances of EMR students on four selected subtests of the WISC-R

An experimental study was undertaken with 120 EMR students to examine the effect on performance of three types of test item response reinforcers (token, verbal praise, verbal neutral), and two levels of reinforcement schedule (fixed and continuous ratio). Results indicated: (a) no interaction between type of reinforcement and schedule, (b) no main effect for type of schedule, (c) but a statistically significant positive effect on scaled scores for token and verbal praise reinforcers on the Arithmetic, Digit Span, and Picture Completion WISC-R subtests. No effect on Block Design scores was noted.