Communicating conservation science

What are the key messages conservation science should communicate to the public? Although the profile of conservation science itself can be raised by talking about the process, most feel that the messages should concern what conservation science brings to the focus of its work – cultural heritage. However, it is no longer enough to focus on the needs of heritage in isolation. Demonstrating public benefit is crucial to persuade decision-makers to invest not only in the conservation of cultural heritage but also in the science that informs its care. Conservation science can research the significance of cultural heritage and how to enable access to it, but it now also needs to engage the public actively in its activities. This means continuing to use the traditional ‘hard’ sciences of physics and chemistry but also learning from and collaborating more with less familiar partners such as the social sciences, the medical sciences, and natural heritage to demonstrate how conservation science is good for people, and developing new methods of communication to do this. Conservation science needs to engage with the public not only as a subject for research but also as a means of doing the research, so the end also becomes the means. Public impact should be factored into conservation science projects, with training in communication and the principles of interpretation provided to those involved. A more fundamental shift may be required in the sector however, that puts people's benefit at the heart of conservation science as much as the benefit of the cultural heritage it engages with.     

Conservation science: Reflections and future perspectives

The ICCROM Forum 2013 on Conservation Science resulted in a series of recommendations for improving the relevance and impact of science within cultural heritage conservation. These recommendations are outlined in this paper. Central to the Forum recommendations is the responsibility of conservation science to provide benefit through research and innovation. This relies on shared strategic vision and good governance, to identify priority needs and align efforts accordingly. To enhance the effectiveness of conservation science research, it is imperative to adopt an approach based on needs assessment, collaboration, and sharing. However, to establish whether desired goals are being met, systematic assessment of what is delivered and how it is used is required. Evaluation tools provide a structured way to identify needs and to measure results, offering a basis for learning and improvement. A new initiative is outlined, launched by ICCROM in follow-up to the Forum, to develop a common framework for needs and outcome assessment for heritage conservation science. To achieve this will require participation and support at multiple levels, and collaboration is called for to continue and sustain this effort.     

Working with policy-makers for integrating heritage science research into political priorities

This paper draws upon the deliberations and outcomes of a discussion group at the ICCROM Forum 2013 on Conservation Science which focussed on the role of policy-makers within conservation science as important agents who can determine the future of this field, and how to strengthen the relationship between heritage professionals and policy-makers. In developing recommendations, five key areas were considered: identifying policy-makers; the actors involved in drafting and deciding a policy; what policy-makers require from conservation scientists; what conservation scientists require from policy-makers; and the ways to develop common interest between conservation scientists and policy-makers for efficient policy-making. This report summarizes the findings from each area concluding with two parts: key messages to policy-makers; and recommendations to conservation scientists to ensure that the key messages are included in policy-making.     

Shifting the focus to people: Global societal priorities and the contribution made by conservation science

During the ICCROM Forum on Conservation Science in 2013, one of the main themes discussed was the ability for conservation science to contribute to global societal priorities. Today's world is in many ways globalized. Human actions have an impact at local as well as global level. Information travels fast, more or less in real time. To set up a framework for international interactions and cooperation, the majority of the recognized nations have joined the United Nations and signed the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Global societal priorities are various and wide-ranging. This paper deals primarily with those that are referred to under the UN Millennium Development Goals and the term Sustainable Development. The first aims to fight extreme poverty, raise education levels, achieve gender equality, combat diseases, etc. The second deals with the interconnecting systems of social, economic, and environmental sustainability. A core aspect in the discussion is that culture and cultural heritage is integrated in all human activities, yet is diverse because culture holds various values, meanings, and functions for different groups in society. Cultural heritage is a powerful tool to reach and interact with people. It can be used for good and for ill. For conservation science as a discipline to take its professional responsibility seriously, it should contribute to the multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary environment of conservation, and enhance its benefits for society. Through advanced research it can provide historical perspectives and raise awareness of traditional methods, transforming it into ‘easily accessible’ knowledge. It can also contribute by providing facts and information that can open up different narratives based on the same cultural historical realia. Examples of how that can be done are given under the headings: social, economic, and environmental sustainability. Finally, addressing the global conservation community, the following three areas are recommended for future development: the need for process managers and facilitators; the need for active participation in the global sustainability challenges, and the need for inspirational role models and case studies.     

Educating future professionals in conservation science: The challenges of an interdisciplinary field

Training and education paths in conservation science have been the subject of ongoing debate over the last two decades. A key issue is that conservation science, although not a new field, is not adequately defined, which leads to a lack of consensus regarding the competencies needed. During the ICCROM Forum 2013 on Conservation Science, education for conservation scientists was discussed, with a particular focus on those necessary competencies which exceed the scientific domain. This paper reflects on the outcomes of these discussions as well as the results of surveys carried out by ICCROM in preparation for the Forum on education, job advertisements, and the relationship between conservation professionals and science. Challenges identified included current professional paths, dissemination of scientific findings, use of specialized terminology, and the need for professionals who serve more than one area of specialization. These challenges could be viewed as an opportunity to revise and modify educational programmes. New interactive platforms could be used to facilitate participative science projects, and could change the way projects are carried out in the near future.     

How can science connect with and contribute to conservation? Recommendations and reflections

This paper reports the conclusions and recommendations of the working group that synthesized the discussions on ‘How can science connect with and be of greater benefit to conservation practice?’ during the ICCROM Forum on Conservation Science. The author reflects on these findings from her own perspective and experiences, and places them in the context of two major shifts in heritage research: the first, a shift in focus from conserving materials to managing meaning. The second, a shift in organizational structures from single, centrally funded heritage institutions towards diffuse networks which include new players who have no direct responsibility towards heritage. Both shifts are taking place in an environment of decreased funding and increased accountability to society. Science and conservation connect and contribute to each other most effectively if they together contribute to the societal benefits of heritage. In this regard, heritage science strategies can stimulate collaboration, and direct science and conservation towards innovative, applicable outcomes. Moreover, they can promote a transdisciplinary approach which connects social, economic and business sciences and stakeholders. They should also ensure the creation of sustainable nodes for consolidating knowledge within these dynamic networks.     

Embodiment unbound: Moving beyond divisions in the understanding and practice of heritage conservation

Abstract

This contribution discusses how embodied heritage values operate within a context of heritage sites, and tangible and intangible embodiments of what is valued as heritage. This is partly intended to re-contextualize ideas of material and materiality that have recently undergone reconsideration in conservation and heritage discourse. The paper questions the claim that ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ philosophies of conservation are very different, and that they can be characterized as being concerned with intangible and tangible heritage, respectively. This is based on the assertion that influential preservation doctrines are as much a product of the context and practical situations as they are a product of different philosophies and cultures. Well-known examples from East and West are discussed to highlight the similarities, as opposed to the differences, in approaches. The article goes on to discuss the UNESCO definition of intangible heritage (2003), which conflates the intangible embodiment of values with the intangible values attributable to all heritage. As a way to contextualize this, the article considers embodiment of heritage values as a means to express both intangible and tangible heritage sites (since neither embodiment nor sites have to be physical). This is described by way of a simple, pre-existing communication model that moves from information source (which transmits the message) through the medium (the heritage site or object) to the audience (heritage user). These insights are intended to provide a balanced perspective that accommodates both the site and the embodied values in order to help make and justify conservation decisions.     

Tools for assessing needs and impacts

The results of the ICCROM Forum 2013 on Conservation Science working group on Tools for assessing needs and impacts is presented. It is used as a starting point for a fundamental study of tools in general, tangible and intangible. The phenomenon of scientists and their organizations becoming defined by their tools, and unable to change when the needs of those they serve change, was noted by Kaplan in 1964. Part of the mechanism is the human tendency to solve any disagreement between new facts (like client needs) and old beliefs (such as the importance of one's toolset) by twisting the facts rather than the beliefs. Collins' proposal of three kinds of tacit knowledge, with collective tacit knowledge as the most difficult to make explicit, can explain common problems of interpretation and communication of assessments, and guide strategies for reliable tools. Kaufmann's ideas on the structuring of needs assessment by levels, and the distinction between macro outputs and mega outcomes, is combined with Maslow's five basic human needs, as well as the three pillars of sustainability, to produce an overall map of where needs assessment tools operate, and where conservation science organizations fit into this structure.     

Archiving Records and Papers of Conservators of Art and Artifacts

ABSTRACT

The records of art conservators are important for many reasons. As people consider artwork a legacy of American culture so too will they also consider the records generated by individuals who have spent their working lives guaranteeing its long-term survival. Conservators and archival repositories need to work together to ensure that records relating to the treatment of art objects in their many forms be retained and made available to researchers generations from now. Some conservators and institutions have already begun to work together, most notably the conservators who have donated their papers to the Winterthur Museum. The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works and The Getty Conservation Institute organized a two-day roundtable discussion in May 2003, bringing conservators and archivists together to discuss the next steps in archiving the records of art conservators.     

An exploration of female offenders’ memorable messages from probation and parole officers on the self-assessment of behavior from a control theory perspective

Guided by control theory, this study examines memorable messages that women on probation and parole receive from their probation and parole agents. Women interviewed for the study were asked to report a memorable message they received from an agent, and to describe situations if/when the message came to mind in three contexts likely to emerge from a control theory perspective: when they did something of which they were proud, when they stopped themselves from doing something they would later regret, and when they did something of which they were not proud. The types of memorable messages and the reactions to these messages within the three contexts were coded, and differences between women on probation versus parole were examined. Overall, a greater proportion of women on parole recalled memorable messages, and the most frequently reported type of memorable message was behavioral advice. Women reported that the message helped them do things of which they were proud, such as engaging in routine activities and fulfilling goals; helped them to not give into urges that could lead to further negative sanctions or feelings of regret; and came to mind when they relapsed. Practical implications of the findings for training are presented.     

The inherent sharing of conservation decisions

Abstract

This paper provides an understanding of an under-explored aspect of the sharing of conservation decisions. In particular, it argues that conservation decisions are inherently shared in at least three senses. First, conservation is conceived as a field of shared values, principles, and decision-making methodology, and aspires to a universally shared ethic. This view is supported by the logical and ethical consistency of existing Codes of Ethics, and is made manifest with the aid of a conceptual model of what science is. Second, conservation decisions are conditioned by the identity of heritage entities. The values comprising the heritage identity of an entity transcend space and time boundaries; they are interrelated and interdependent and, as such, shared. Third, the benefits but also the harms stemming from conservation decisions and actions are distributed and shared among all people for whom the object of a conservation decision is heritage. As dictated by the do-no-harm principle, conservators have a duty to consider risks of such harms when making decisions.     

Using a Behavior Change Model to Document the Impact of Visits to Disney's Animal Kingdom: A Study Investigating Intended Conservation Action

Abstract Over the last 10 to 15 years, zoos and aquariums have set out to influence visitors' conservation‐related knowledge, attitudes, affect, and behavior. In 2000, the Institute for Learning Innovation collaborated with Disney's Animal Kingdom (DAK) on a comprehensive baseline study conducted to assess the outcomes of a DAK experience on visitors in four areas: knowledge, attitudes, affect, and behavior. This article describes one aspect of the comprehensive study: an investigation of the long‐term (two‐to‐three‐month) impact of a visit to Conservation Station at Disney's Animal Kingdom on visitors' intended conservation action. The study used a behavior change model from the health arena: the Prochaska Model of Behavioral Change. The model proved helpful but had some drawbacks, suggesting the need to develop a more sensitive change model. The implications of this study could assist institutions in thinking about what audiences or messages to emphasize in order to influence behavior.     

Changing research trends in the field of archaeological wood at the Conservation Department,Faculty of Archaeology,Cairo University

Abstract

Since 1980, much research in the field of treatment and conservation of archaeological wood has been carried out at the Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University. Materials and methods used in conservation have been changing gradually over the years worldwide. It was necessary to study critically previous masters and doctoral dissertations on Egyptian archaeological and historic wood, all written in Arabic. This review of them includes a brief history of the Conservation Department at Cairo University and five main focal points of past research: types of wood used throughout Egyptian history, assessment of wood decay, wood properties and composition, treatment and conservation of decorated wood, and the evaluation of chemicals and polymers used in the treatment of archaeological wood and composite objects containing wood.     

Perceived Message Effectiveness Measures in Tobacco Education Campaigns: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Target audience ratings of the likely impact of persuasive messages, known as perceived message effectiveness (PME), are commonly used during message development and selection. PME is also used to examine receptivity of messages after they are fully developed or deployed. Despite this, we know little about the conceptual and methodological characteristics of extant PME measures used in the literature. We conducted a systematic review of tobacco education video, print, and audio campaign studies to examine conceptual and methodological characteristics of PME measures. One hundred twenty-six PME measures from 75 studies conducted in 21 countries with more than 61,000 participants were reviewed. Results indicated considerable variability in measures’ focus on general perceptions of a message (i.e., message perceptions) vs. perceptions of expected message effects (i.e., effects perceptions). Considerable variability was also found on underlying persuasive constructs, use of referents, and referencing of behavior in PME items and measures. We conclude with several recommendations for future research on PME measurement and validation.     

Esteem Support Messages Received during the Job Search: A Test of the CETESM

The current study extends research on the Cognitive-Emotional Theory of Esteem Support Messages (CETESM) and examines the role of esteem support during the job search. Unemployed, underemployed, and/or displaced job seekers (N=197) recalled an esteem support message they had received during their job search. Messages were coded using a scheme derived from the CETESM. Results indicate that helpful messages (i.e., those that enhanced state self-esteem related to the job search) were significantly more likely than unhelpful messages to contain message features predicted by the CETESM. Helpful messages were also associated with greater job search activity than were unhelpful messages. Theoretical implications, as well as pragmatic implications for those who wish to support job seekers, are discussed.     

The role of conservation in new contemporary art installations in new contexts: The case of Richard Serra's East–West/West–East in Qatar

In recent years Qatar has invested a significant sum of money on exhibitions of contemporary artists and public art. This paper discusses decision-making processes in the conservation of contemporary artworks installed in newly emerging art markets such as Qatar, where there are no established practices. In 2014, Richard Serra's East–West/West–East, an installation of four vertical plates made of weathering (Corten?) steel, which span one kilometre at heights so as to reach the level of the surrounding gypsum plateaus, was installed in the Brouq Nature Reserve near Zekreet desert, two kilometres from the sea in the western part of Qatar. The artwork is already considered by some a landmark for the isolated area. The plates have started to develop protective corrosion layers, although Corten? is not completely corrosion resistant when located near coastal sites. They have also started to bend and are heavily inscribed by visitors. Conservation of public art is complex, as site-specific artworks are linked with the landscape and defined by the relationships they develop with the public. Art installations of this magnitude demand not only conservation measures but also a management plan. The isolated location, the scale of the artwork, the aggressive environment, and the lack of supervision and monitoring of the area challenge current practices but offer an opportunity to develop methods to preserve art of site-specific art in new environments and diverse audiences. Monitoring will allow a better understanding of the interactions of visitors with the artwork and will shed light on the material's behaviour in this specific environment.     

The relationship between the developmental level of persuasive strategies and their effectiveness

Research on the development of persuasive communication skills has described the emergence of four basic strategies in persuasive messages. This study includes two experiments to assess the role these strategies play in the process of gaining compliance. In both, college students received messages requesting they volunteer for an experiment and advocating compliance. Messages differed in the level of strategic adaptation of the compliance‐gaining appeal they offered. In general, form of request (supported versus unsupported) and content of specific message appeals influenced compliance, but level of strategic adaptation made little or no contribution to message effectiveness.     

Speech as process: Effects of experimental design

The traditional design for the study of language variables is a controlled message design in which one kernel message is manipulated to produce message variations that represent the language variable contrasts. Thus message content is the same across treatment conditions and hence crossed with the treatment factors. Jackson and Jacobs (1983) criticized this design on three grounds. They argued that messages should be natural rather than contrived, that messages should be nested within treatment conditions rather than crossed with treatment factors, and that each study should use as many messages as possible. Their paper has been used by reviewers as the basis for rejecting studies done using the traditional design. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the arguments presented in Jackson and Jacobs (1983) as well as subsequent papers by Jackson (1984) and Jackson and Jacobs (1987). The arguments are shown to contain both methodological and substantive errors. When the arguments are corrected, it is shown that nested designs and multiple messages should be used only when absolutely necessary. It is the traditional controlled message, crossed design and not the naturalistic message, nested design which is robust; robust against not only incidental but fundamental confounding, robust against message by treatment by message interactions, and relatively robust against Type II error. Taken together with meta‐analysis, the traditional single message, crossed design can detect and identify message by treatment interactions. On the other hand, the multiple message design makes it impossible to identify such interactions.     

On the routing of signals in parallel processor meshes

Wormhole message routing is supported by the communication hardware of several distributed memory machines. This particular method of message routing has numerous advantages but creates the problem of a routing deadlock. When long messages compete for the same channels in the network, some messages will be blocked until the first message is fully consumed by the processor at the destination of the message. A deadlock occurs if a set of messages mutually blocks, and no message can progress towards its destination. Most deadlock free routing schemes previously known are designed to work on regular binary hypercubes, a very special case of multicomputer interconnection networks. However, these routing schemes do not provide enough flexibility to deal with the irregular 2-D-tori and attached auxiliary cells found on many newer parallel systems.To handle irregular topologies elegantly, a simple proof is necessary to verify the router code. The new proof given in this report is carried out directly on the network graph. It is constructive in the sense that it reveals the design options to deal with irregularities and shows how additional flexibility can be used to achieve better load balancing.Based on the modified routing model, a set of deadlock free router functions relevant to the iWarp system configurations are described and proven to be correct.