Effects of a Theory-Based Feedback and Consultation Process on Instruction and Learning in College Classrooms

This study examined how midterm student ratings feedback provided to teaching assistants via a theory-based ratings instrument, combined with consultation on instructional practices, would affect teaching practices, ratings of teaching effectiveness, and student learning and motivation. The student ratings instrument that was employed focused on a series of instructional activities derived from Gagné's theory of instruction and Reiser and Dick's instructional model. Thirty-seven teaching assistants in undergraduate computer science and chemistry courses were randomly assigned to either a feedback + consultation group or a no-feedback group. Results of this study indicated that the feedback and consultation process had a significant impact on instructional practices and ratings of teaching effectiveness. Student learning and student motivation were positively correlated with the frequency with which the various instructional activities examined in this study were utilized. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The occurrence of analogies in elementary school science books

An analogy is a model drawn from one contextand used to support understanding in anothercontext. This study investigates the extent towhich analogies in instructional science booksare provided by authors. The books surveyed areavailable from commercial suppliers andintended for use in the elementary schoolclassroom with 7 to 11 year old children.Eighty texts were analysed for the presence orabsence of analogies. Forty-five of the booksoffered no analogies at all. In the remainingthirty-five books, 92 analogies were found.These were classified in line with earlier workon analogies for older students by Curtis andReigeluth (1984) and the findings arediscussed. The extent to which teachers candraw upon the analogies in such texts tosupport children's understanding isconsidered.     

The evolution of an approach for using analogies in teaching and learning science

An important contribution to effective teaching and learning can be made by teachers' understanding of the central topics in each subject area and knowing how to transform their content knowledge into knowledge for teaching. One aspect of this knowledge is the use of analogies which can effectively communicate concepts to students of particular backgrounds and prerequisite knowledge. Indeed, analogies are considered to be an important component in the repertoire of effective teachers. However, research about teachers' use of analogies in science lessons provides little guidance about the optimum approaches that may be taken by preservice teachers, novice teachers, experienced teachers or reluctant analogy users. This paper describes the evolution of an approach for using analogies in science teaching that addresses both findings from the research literature and recognises the needs of practising teachers. Specializations: learning and teaching science concepts, technology education.     

Analogical instruction within the information processing paradigm: effective means to facilitate learning

Research on the structure of memory has led to evidence that relating unfamiliar information to that which is familiar facilitates the new material's acquisition and retention; moreover, such associations can be efficiently achieved through the use of analogies. The present paper discusses the current information processing conceptualization of memory, the processes of learning by analogy, and the overall desired outcomes of their use to acquire and retain new information. Additionally, instructional implications of how, when, and why to use analogies are discussed.     

Science Teachers’ Analogical Reasoning

Analogies can play a relevant role in students’ learning. However, for the effective use of analogies, teachers should not only have a well-prepared repertoire of validated analogies, which could serve as bridges between the students’ prior knowledge and the scientific knowledge they desire them to understand, but also know how to introduce analogies in their lessons. Both aspects have been discussed in the literature in the last few decades. However, almost nothing is known about how teachers draw their own analogies for instructional purposes or, in other words, about how they reason analogically when planning and conducting teaching. This is the focus of this paper. Six secondary teachers were individually interviewed; the aim was to characterize how they perform each of the analogical reasoning subprocesses, as well as to identify their views on analogies and their use in science teaching. The results were analyzed by considering elements of both theories about analogical reasoning: the structural mapping proposed by Gentner and the analogical mechanism described by Vosniadou. A comprehensive discussion of our results makes it evident that teachers’ content knowledge on scientific topics and on analogies as well as their pedagogical content knowledge on the use of analogies influence all their analogical reasoning subprocesses. Our results also point to the need for improving teachers’ knowledge about analogies and their ability to perform analogical reasoning.     

Analysis of analogies used by science teachers

Science teachers use analogies that display a rich variety of form and content. An account of science teacher analogies that relies solely on systems of analysis imported from other fields of inquiry tends to obscure the unique features of these analogies as they operate within classroom discourse. This study examines teachers' analogies in context and highlights some of their special characteristics. The purpose of this analysis is to increase our understanding of how analogies operate in naturalistic instructional settings and to generate new research questions about science teaching and learning in view of the broader dimensions of the curriculum. Science isa very human activity. It involves human actors and judgements, rivalries and antagonisms, mysteries and surprises, the creative use of metaphor and analogy. It is fallible, often uncertain, and sometimes creatively ambiguous [Lemke, 1990, p. 134].     

Collaborative and self-generated analogies in science education

It has long been recognised that analogies may be a useful tool in science education. At the same time, it has been found that there are challenges to using analogies in teaching. For example, students might not identify a suitable analogy, might not recognise how the taught target domain is similar to the source domain to which it is compared, or may fail to realise where the analogy breaks down. The present study offers a review of two trends which reflect the ambition to come to terms with such challenges: self-generated analogies, making use of students’ own analogies in teaching, and analogy generation in collaborative settings, such as in small-group work. Empirical studies show predominately positive results with regard to students’ enjoyment and learning gains, and point to opportunities for formative assessment. The specificities of language in conjunction with analogy and the role of analogies in authentic science classroom discourse are suggested as areas of study that deserve more attention going forward.     

Understanding science teaching effectiveness: examining how science-specific and generic instructional practices relate to student achievement in secondary science classrooms

ABSTRACT

In order to create conditions for students’ meaningful and rigorous intellectual engagement in science classrooms, it is critically important to help science teachers learn which strategies and approaches can be used best to develop students’ scientific literacy. Better understanding how science teachers’ instructional practices relate to student achievement can provide teachers with beneficial information about how to best engage their students in meaningful science learning. To address this need, this study examined the instructional practices that 99 secondary biology teachers used in their classrooms and employed regression to determine which instructional practices are predictive of students’ science achievement. Results revealed that the secondary science teachers who had well-managed classroom environments and who provided opportunities for their students to engage in student-directed investigation-related experiences were more likely to have increased student outcomes, as determined by teachers’ value-added measures. These findings suggest that attending to both generic and subject-specific aspects of science teachers’ instructional practice is important for understanding the underlying mechanisms that result in more effective science instruction in secondary classrooms. Implications about the use of these observational measures within teacher evaluation systems are discussed.     

Expert novice similarities and instruction using analogies

Evidence is presented indicating that spontaneously generated analogies can play a significant role in expert problem solving. Since not all analogies are valid, it is important for the subject to have a way to evaluate their validity. In particular, this paper focuses on an evaluation strategy called bridging that has been observed in solutions to both science and mathematics problems. Spontaneous analogies have also been documented in the problem solving of students. The shared natural use of analogies for unfamiliar problems is an expert‐novice similarity.

Some of the strategies observed in experts were incorporated in a teaching technique for dealing with students’ preconceptions in mechanics. Students taught via these units achieved large gain differences over control groups. Thus non‐deductive reasoning strategies used by experts can give us valuable clues concerning instructional strategies for science students. This complements the prior focus in the literature on expert novice differences with a focus on expert novice similarities.     

Using analogies to improve the teaching performance of preservice teachers

Prior research in both education and cognitive science has identified analogy making as a powerful tool for explanation as well as a fundamental mechanism for facilitating an individual's construction of knowledge. While a considerable body of research exists focusing on the role analogy plays in learning science concepts, relatively little is known about how instruction in the use of analogies might influence the teaching performance of preservice teachers. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between pedagogical analogy use and pedagogical reasoning ability in a sample of preservice elementary teachers (PTs), a group that has been identified for their particular difficulties in teaching science. The study utilized a treatment/contrast group design in which the treatment group was provided instruction that guided them in the generation of analogies to aid in the explanation phase of learning cycle lessons. A relationship between analogy use and positive indicants of teaching performance was observed and a case study of a low performing preservice teacher who drastically improved teaching performance using analogy‐based pedagogy is presented. A notable effect on conceptual understanding of Newton's Third Law as a result of two brief analogy‐based demonstration lessons was also observed. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 44: 565–585, 2007.     

Adaptive web-based learning: accommodating individual differences through system's adaptation

The idea of developing educational hypermedia systems for the Web is very challenging, and demands the synergy of computer science and instructional science. The paper builds on theories from instructional design and learning styles to develop a design rational and guidelines for adaptive web‐based learning systems that use individual differences as a basis of system's adaptation. Various examples are provided to illustrate how instructional manipulations with regards to content adaptation and presentation, and adaptive navigation support, as well as the overall degree of system adaptation, are guided by educational experiences geared towards individual differences.     

Obstacles to instructional innovation according to college science and mathematics faculty

Numerous studies have documented the infrequent use of learner‐centered instruction in college science and mathematics classrooms and its negative effects on undergraduate learning and motivation. The present research deepened understanding of why. Specifically, an Internet survey was constructed that explored obstacles, supports, and incentives for instructional innovation in the classroom and was sent out to college science and mathematics faculty of Louisiana. Results revealed that colleges generally were perceived to assign little or an indeterminate weight to instruction in personnel decision making. Faculty members generally have little training in pedagogy; but when they do, they are more likely to consult sources of instructional innovation and consider teaching an important part of their professional identities. Data concerning the most common sources of instructional innovation information are presented. Several suggestions are made for institutional reform that if enacted might contribute to systemic improvement in the quality of instruction undergraduates receive. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach     

Behaviorism,Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective

The way we define learning and what we believe about the way learning occurs has important implications for situations in which we want to facilitate changes in what people know and/ or do. Learning theories provide instructional designers with verified instructional strategies and techniques for facilitating learning as well as a foundation for intelligent strategy selection. Yet many designers are operating under the constraints of a limited theoretical background. This paper is an attempt to familiarize designers with three relevant positions on learning (behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist) which provide structured foundations for planning and conducting instructional design activities. Each learning perspective is discussed in terms of its specific interpretation of the learning process and the resulting implications for instructional designers and educational practitioners. The information presented here provides the reader with a comparison of these three different viewpoints and illustrates how these differences might be translated into practical applications in instructional situations.     

The Effect of a Mastery Learning Technique on the Performance of a Transfer of Training Task

This study evaluated the effect of using the mastery learning technique of self‐directed feedback, reinforcement, and remediation of knowledge on the performance of a work‐related task. The mastery learning intervention was conducted via a workbook which provided feedback to participants on their knowledge attainment after instruction, yet before the evaluation of the transfer task. The study utilized a randomized subjects, post‐test‐only control group design with 130 participants. The hypothesis that mastery learning would have a positive effect on transfer of knowledge from the classroom to a work‐related task was supported. Implications for instructional design and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Development of evidence-based,student-learning-oriented rubrics for pre-service science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge

ABSTRACT

This paper offers pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) rubrics, that is, guides providing criteria for grading that are potentially applicable to a range of science topics and levels of teacher experience. Grading criteria applied in the rubrics are based on qualitative analyses of planned topic-specific professional knowledge (TSPK) and content knowledge (CK). Data were collected via three topic-specific vignettes from 239 pre-service science teachers (PSTs) starting a university-based, full-time, one year teacher education programme in England. The statements were analysed for TSPK and CK. PSTs’ statements proposed instructional strategies comprising demonstrations, explanations, illustrations and analogies, classified as Relevant to the science topics, others Irrelevant. Some Relevant strategies missed an aspect that may, if enacted, help students’ learning, so were judged Incomplete. Statements were also analysed for evidence of relevant and correct CK. CK and TSPK statements are aligned into grids, creating PCK rubrics. These demonstrate the precise nature of knowledge likely to lead to instruction that impacts positively on student learning. The rubrics present the possibility of PCK repertoires that contribute clarity and precision to teaching instruction. Although findings cannot be generalised, the methodology offers a strategy for supporting out-of-field teachers, and those seeking instructional strategies to add to existing repertoires.     

An experimental comparison of the flexibility in the use of thinking styles in traditional and hypermedia learning environments

The objective of the instructional experiment was to examine if the use of thinking styles is flexible in traditional and hypermedia learning environments, and if a hypermedia learning environment possesses obvious advantages than a traditional environment in adapting to students with different thinking styles. The participant university students from Shanghai, P.R. China took the General Psychology course taught by one psychology teacher. One hundred and seven science students and one hundred and thirty-one social science students were assigned into traditional and hypermedia instructional groups, respectively. The results indicated that the use of the hierarchical, executive, conservative, and monarchic styles was increased, while the use of the local style was decreased due to the traditional instructional environment. The use of the judicial and liberal styles was increased, while the use of the legislative style was weakened due to the hypermedia environment. Moreover, significant effects of discipline differences in the use of particular thinking styles were found in the traditional instructional environment. Specifically, within the context of traditional learning environments, the use of the hierarchical style increased among the science students, while the use of the local style decreased among the social science students. The study did not support the view that a hypermedia learning environment is clearly better than a traditional environment in accommodating students with different thinking styles. Implications for learning and teaching are discussed.