The Image of the Instructor as it is Related to Class Size

Sixty-seven fifth graders studied a text followed by an immediate test (T1) consisting of inference, factual retention, and guess questions, and either received feedback after thirty minutes, after a day, or no feedback. Retesting of half the T1 items was done after a day, the other half after a week. On retesting, subjects were asked to identify their T1 responses. The three types of T1 questions were similarly affected by feedback, while on the postfeedback tests the one-day delay of feedback gave somewhat better results than the thirty minutes of delay. Identification of T1 responses was generally high and was not found to interfere with learning from feedback. In discussing the results, the adequacy of the interference-perseveration hypothesis was questioned.     

Refutations in science texts lead to hypercorrection of misconceptions held with high confidence

Misconceptions about science are often not corrected during study when they are held with high confidence. However, when corrective feedback co-activates a misconception together with the correct conception, this feedback may surprise the learner and draw attention, especially when the misconceptions are held with high confidence. Therefore, high-confidence misconceptions might be more likely to be corrected than low-confidence misconceptions. The present study investigates whether this hypercorrection effect occurs when students read science texts. Effects of two text formats were compared: Standard texts that presented factual information, and refutation texts that explicitly addressed misconceptions and refuted them before presenting factual information. Eighth grade adolescents (N = 114) took a pre-reading test that included 16 common misconceptions about science concepts, rated their confidence in correctness of their response to the pre-reading questions, read 16 texts about the science concepts, and finally took a post-test which included both true/false and open-ended test questions. Analyses of post-test responses show that reading refutation texts causes hypercorrection: Learners more often corrected high-confidence misconceptions after reading refutation texts than after reading standard texts, whereas low-confidence misconceptions did not benefit from reading refutation texts. These outcomes suggest that people are more surprised when they find out a confidently held misconception is incorrect, which may encourage them to pay more attention to the feedback and the refutation. Moreover, correction of high-confidence misconceptions was more apparent on the true/false test responses than on the open-ended test, suggesting that additional interventions may be needed to improve learners' accommodation of the correct information.     

Instructional Procedures for Increasing Skill‐Deficient Fourth Graders’ Comprehension of Syntactic Structures

Comprehension of pronoun‐referent structures has been shown to cause difficulty for children throughout the middle grades. This study investigated the effectiveness of a pronoun‐specific approach using principles of systematic instruction in teaching students to identify pronoun antecedents and to answer factual questions based on this knowledge. This approach was contrasted to both a retell method (where the students practised paraphrasing the text) and a no intervention condition. Forty‐five fourth grade students (identified by a screening test as skill deficient) were randomly assigned to one of these three treatment groups. Students in both the pronoun‐specific and the retell group received 20 minutes of individual instruction per day for three consecutive days. On the day following treatment, all three groups were given two tests, one assessing the identification of pronoun‐referent structures and one requiring the child to answer factual questions based on the comprehension of these structures. Maintenance tests were given two weeks later. All passages in the teaching sessions and the test materials were selected from social studies or science texts currently approved for school district use. Results of an analysis of variance with planned comparisons indicated a significant difference favouring the pronoun‐specific group on the identification of pronoun antecedents. These results were also replicated on the maintenance test. No significant differences were found on measures of factual comprehension.     

Study time and test performance as a function of test expectations

Study time and test performance change as a function of subjects expecting either open questions or a multiple-choice test on the contents of a history text. After studying a first history text, the subjects immediately received a test consisting of either open questions or multiple-choice items. They were led to expect the same type of test on a second text. Study time on Text 2 was self-paced, and the type of test was either the expected or unexpected one (either open questions or a multiple-choice test). The main hypothesis was confirmed that subjects consider open questions a more demanding test than a multiple-choice test. Accordingly, subjects expecting open questions on Text 2 used more study time and performed better on both types of test than did subjects expecting a multiple-choice test. Internal analyses revealed that the differences on study time and test achievement between the two expectation conditions occurred only when the subjects were thoroughly acquainted with the processing requirements of the learning material and its expected test.     

Level of adjunct question,type of feedback,and learning concepts by reading

The effects of level of adjunct question (factual, application) and type of feedback (no feedback, correct answer feedback, self-correction feedback) on learning concepts from prose were examined. Feedback influenced performance on the questions asked during instruction, but did not facilitate concept learning. Adjunct application questions produced better concept learning when there was a 1-day interval between study and test (Experiment 1), but not when the test was immediate (Experiment 2). The results suggest that, contrary to widely held views, feedback does not necessarily facilitate concept learning and that adjunct application questions do not always facilitate the learning of concepts through reading.     

Effects of study intention and generating multiple choice questions on expository text retention

Teachers often recommend their students to generate test questions and answers as a means of preparing for an exam. There is a paucity of research on the effects of this instructional strategy. Two recent studies showed positive effects of generating test questions relative to restudy, but these studies did not control for time on task. Moreover, the scarce research available has been limited to the effects of generating open-ended questions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether generating multiple-choice test questions would foster retention (as measured by a multiple-choice test) relative to restudy when time would be kept constant across conditions. Using a 2 × 2 design, university students (N = 143) studied a text with the intention of either generating test items or performing well on a test, and then either generated multiple-choice items or restudied the text. Retention was measured by means of a multiple-choice test, both immediately after learning and after a one-week delay. Results showed no effects of study intention. Generating multiple-choice items resulted in lower test performance than restudying the text for the same amount of time.     

Adjunct aids in instructional prose: a multimedia study with deaf college students

A computer-based science lesson was administered to 144 deaf college students grouped into low, middle, and high reading ability levels. Five instructional conditions were compared: (1) text only, (2) text and content movies, (3) text and sign movies, (4) text and adjunct questions, and (5) all of these together (full condition). The low reading level subjects in the adjunct question and full conditions demonstrated immediate, factual learning performance comparable to that of the high reading level subjects in the text-only condition. These and other results of this investigation suggest the compensatory potential of adjunct aids and associated mathemagenic activities to improve factual learning from instructional prose for low reading ability students.     

On inserting questions before or after segments of text

It has been concluded in all major reviews of adjunct question research that a group given questions after related text segments (postquestions) yields greater recall than a group given questions before related text segments (prequestions) or one not given any questions at all. However, closer examination of the earlier research and an analysis of recent research reveals that for certain types of verbatim questions and for certain high level questions, postquestions produce recall equivalent to or less than prequestions. Moreover, in many studies wherein postquestions exceed prequestions, the postquestion group equals the reading-only control group in recall of nonquestioned (incidental) material. Hence, despite frequent pronouncements to the contrary, no firm recommendation can be made regarding the optimal placement of adjunct questions in text material.     

Advancing text-analysis to tap into the student voice: a proof-of-concept study

Abstract

Student evaluations of teaching and courses (SETs) are part of the fabric of tertiary education and quantitative ratings derived from SETs are highly valued by tertiary institutions. However, many staff do not engage meaningfully with SETs, especially if the process of analysing student feedback is cumbersome or time-consuming. To address this issue, we describe a proof-of-concept study to automate aspects of analysing student free text responses to questions. Using Quantext text analysis software, we summarise and categorise student free text responses to two questions posed as part of a larger research project which explored student perceptions of SETs. We compare human analysis of student responses with automated methods and identify some key reasons why students do not complete SETs. We conclude that the text analytic tools in Quantext have an important role in assisting teaching staff with the rigorous analysis and interpretation of SETs and that keeping teachers and students at the centre of the evaluation process is key.     

The effects of different feedback strategies using computer-administered multiple-choice questions as instruction

This study investigated the effects of using different forms of computer-based feedback on high school students' learning of science material. The basic design consisted of two conditions of instructional support (text and questions vs. questions only), two testings (immediate vs. retention), five levels of similarity between lesson and posttest questions, and five feedback conditions: knowledge of correct response (KCR), delayed KCR, answer until correct (AUC), questions only (no feedback), and no questions. Results showed significant benefits for feedback over no feedback, with AUC becoming more advantageous and delayed feedback less so as lesson-posttest question similarity decreased. Also, with decreased question similarity and the availability of supporting text, overall feedback effects tended to decrease. The results are discussed in terms of the information processing effects of the different feedback forms, a factor that CBI designers often fail to exploit in planning feedback conditions.This article is based on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the faculty of Memphis State University by the first author. Reprint requests should be addressed to Steven M. Ross, Department of Foundations of Education, Memphis State University, Memphis, TN 38152.     

An attitudinal study of computer-assisted testing as a learning method

The study investigated the effects of exposure to computer-assisted testing (CAT) as an effective instructional method and its effects on attitudes toward computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Five computer quizzes consisting of 20 randomly drawn multiple-choice questions were individually administered on 10 teletype terminals. A feedback mechanism was incorporated in the CAT program and provided detailed explanations of questions. Results indicated that subjects exposed to CAT had significantly more favorable attitudes toward CAI than subjects not exposed to CAT. In addition, CAT was perceived by students to be an effective instructional method in aiding mastery of conceptual and factual material.     

The Effects of Retelling Upon Reading Comprehension and Recall of Text Information

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of retelling (free recall) upon the comprehension and recall of text information for 93 fourth-grade students. Subjects were assigned randomly to one of two generative learning strategy treatment conditions: retelling or illustrating. Subjects participated in four training sessions and one test session. For each of the four training sessions subjects silently read a passage and then, according to treatment condition, either retold the important parts of the passage or illustrated the important parts of the passage. For the test passage all subjects silently read the passage, and then rendered a free recall. Two days later all subjects rendered a delayed free recall and answered 10 literal and 10 inferential questions about the test passage. Statistically significant differences were found on all measures of reading comprehension and recall (immediate free recall, two-day delayed free recall, and responses to literal and inferential questions) in favor of the subjects who received practice in retelling. The results suggest that retelling is a highly potent generative learning strategy and that retelling has direct, beneficial consequences for children's processing of subsequent text.     

Constructing Equivalent Salary Schedules

College students (N = 160) read two 1-½ page passages on the concepts of autism and trochaic meter. After reading, four independent groups answered questions requiring either a summary, the generation of a new example of the concept, a listing of the critical attributes of the concept, or the identification of a new example. All groups received feedback, and a control group received feedback but no post-question. Alternate forms of a test of concept classification were given one day and one week after reading. The identify post-question group showed greater accuracy in the classification of new examples of the concepts studied when compared to the other post-question groups, yet required no greater amount of study time than the no-question control group.     

Duration of response to teacher questions and statements

To examine the effectiveness of teacher questions in stimulating student participation, 26 high school discussion classes were tape-recorded and the duration of utterances timed by stopwatch. Analyses of variance performed on class mean duration of student response revealed three findings. (1) No significant difference was observed between response to questions and response to declarative statements. (2) By question type, opinion questions received significantly longer responses than factual ones, and closed longer than open; no differences were observed for six other ways of classifying questions. (3) Response to questions appeared unrelated to selected characteristics of classroom, teacher, and student. The findings offer little support to current emphases in theory and practice on the use of questions in discussion classes. The study may be situated within a body of recent research that has failed to validate traditional claims for the efficacy of teacher questions.     

The influence of question type,text availability,answer confidence and language background on student comprehension of an expository text

Reading is an essential activity for learning at university, but lecturers are not always experienced in setting appropriate questions to test understanding of texts. In other words, their assessments may not be ‘constructively aligned’ with the learning outcomes they hope their students to exhibit. In examination conditions, questions may be set with insufficient time for re-reading available texts, thus drawing more on students' powers of recall than on deeper learning and comprehension. Previous research has been undertaken on reading comprehension generally, but no research has yet explored the interaction of factors such as text availability (re-reading of texts), text layout, question type and respondents' language background. This study explores the correctness of 50 participants' responses to a set reading task based on an expository text, and participants' confidence in giving those answers, in relation to four factors: the effects of question type; text availability; text layout; and language background. The main findings are that non-native speakers of English have more difficulty and less confidence in answering implicit questions and that reviewing the text has a significant effect on response correctness for implicit questions. The form of text layout did not show a significant effect, however. Our results have implications for lecturers who set readings and questions for comprehension and others who use reading comprehension as part of their ‘hidden curriculum’. Further research in this area is required to determine more precisely the effects of language background.     

Computer game play as an imaginary stage for reading: implicit spatial effects of computer games embedded in hard copy books

This study compared books with embedded computer games (via pentop computers with microdot paper and audio feedback) with regular books with maps, in terms of fifth graders' comprehension and retention of spatial details from stories. One group read a story in hard copy with embedded computer games, the other group read it in regular book format with a map. Students received no reading directions, or notification of upcoming post‐tests. Dependent measures included a post‐test of spatial questions about the story. Some questions addressed story items in both text and games. Other questions addressed spatial items in the text, but not in games. Participants who read books with embedded games scored significantly higher on all the post‐test questions, including spatial questions not addressed in games. This suggests that game play helped readers to create a mental model of the story setting, used in subsequent reading to visualise spatial propositions.     

Supporting learning from text: A meta-analysis on the timing and content of effective feedback

The aim of the present meta-analysis was to examine the effects of feedback on learning from text in conventional readers (ranging from primary school students to university students). Combining 104 contrasts of conditions of reading texts with and without feedback, including 6,124 participants, using the random effects model resulted in a positive effect of feedback on learning from text (g+ = 0.35). Moderator analyses showed that feedback is particularly effective if provided directly after reading, but less so when provided during reading. If feedback is provided directly after reading, elaborate feedback and knowledge-of-correct-response feedback were more effective than knowledge-of-response feedback. If feedback is provided during reading, no differences are found between the effects of different types of feedback. Additionally, computer-delivered feedback is more beneficial for learning from text than non-computer-delivered feedback. Implications for optimizing conditions to support learning from text are discussed.     

Interactions of Attitudes and Associative Interference in Classroom Learning

Ss were tested on their knowledge, attitude, and prior experience toward one of two topics. Then they were assigned a reading or given a lecture on the relevant topic and retested after 2 days and 6 weeks, with half of the Ss given feedback after the second test. Analyses determined to what extent the following variables affected changes in attitudes and factual knowledge: topic, mode of instruction, feedback, prior attitude, prior factual knowledge, prior experience, and evaluation of the lecture or readings.     

Cognitive Style FD/FI as a Learner Selection Criterion in Formative Evaluations A Qualitative Analysis

Single–subject formative evaluation appears to be a cost–effective strategy for improving instructional products. However, the criterion to use for selecting an appropriate test subject who could generate optimal feedback data for improving the instructional product remains a central concern among performance technologists. This article reports the results of a qualitative study of the effectiveness of the cognitive style construct field–dependent/independent as a student selection criterion in formative evaluation. In the study, we collected formative evaluation data from two field–dependent (FD) and two field–independent (FI) test subjects while they were individually interacting with a CAI package. We focused on four different sources of data: think–aloud protocols, researcher/subject interactions, informal observations, and debriefing interviews. Our analysis of the formative evaluation data indicates that the FI individuals were better test subjects than their FD counterparts. FI subjects showed a great deal of confidence in entering the formative evaluation process. Their feedback was abundant and precise and included specific suggestions for improving the material. They not only identified their own difficulties but also speculated about difficulties other students may encounter. In contrast, the FD subjects were anxious and demonstrated less confidence in approaching the evaluation activities. Frequent probing was necessary to trigger their reactions and generate their feedback. Their feedback data were vague, and more inferences were required for translating them into revision decisions. Both FD and FI subjects could identify major discrepancies in the presentation of the material (events of learning) as well as gross misconceptions in the processing of information. Although the FD and FI feedback data differ both qualitatively and quantitatively, no conflicting observation was made.     

The limited facilitative effect of typographical signals

Two experiments investigated the limited facilitative effect of typographical signals. Subjects were presented with a text that had parts of the microstructure (i.e., details within the text) underlined or not underlined. In addition, subjects were informed about a subsequent task that was designed to set up a specific expectation (i.e., receiving questions about the microstructure of the text, or being asked questions about the macrostructure or general nature of the text). After reading, all subjects were asked questions about the text's microstructure. In both experiments, it was found that the mere presence of signals did not lead to better performance on the questions. Instead, there was a facilitative effect only for those subjects who received signals and who received questions about the microstructure. Additionally, Experiment 2 found that in the same text the signaled information was recalled better than the nonsignaled information. These results argue against a general facilitative effect of typographical signals, and indicate that the use of these signals can vary as a function of strategic processing.