Promoting access, accommodations, and independence for college students with learning disabilities.

This article focuses on the four primary issues that directly affect service delivery to students with learning disabilities in postsecondary settings, including (a) How are high school and post-secondary settings different? (b) How are eligibility and access determined? (c) How are reasonable accommodations determined? and (d) How can the independence level of college students with learning disabilities be fostered? Each of these issues will be discussed within the context of the student's transition from high school, where Public Law 94-142 is in effect, to college, where Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 applies.     

Dyslexia in the workplace: Implications of the Americans with disabilities act

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) insures greater accessibility of disabled persons to the workplace. This includes persons with dyslexia and other learning disabilities. The ADA requires reasonable accommodations for persons with disabilities, yet it is different in its mandates from many other federal laws addressing disability-related issues. This article reviews some of the critical provisions of the ADA as it applies to persons with dyslexia, outlines a procedure through which the employer and employee negotiate accommodations, and offers examples of typical workplace problems and corresponding modifications. Finally, some of the talents and strengths often associated with dyslexia are described, as is their potential value in the workplace.     

High-Stakes Testing Accommodations: Validity Versus Disabled Rights

Traditionally, measurement specialists have provided testing accommodations for examinees with physical disabilities such as blindness or impaired mobility. Following passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, advocates for the disabled have argued that federal law also requires testing accommodations for mental disabilities such as dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Such requested accommodations have included readers, calculators, word processors, and additional time. But these accommodations may affect test validity, requiring measurement specialists to balance the social goal of integrating the disabled against the measurement goal of accurate test score interpretation. Although the courts have provided some guidance regarding testing accommodation requirements for the disabled, they have not yet addressed the issue of where to draw the line on accommodations for mental disabilities. This article explores the measurement problems associated with granting accommodations for mental disabilities, uses existing case law to construct a legal framework for considering such accommodations, arid discusses the advantages and-disadvantages of alternative strategies for handling testing accommodation requests.     

Helping Teachers Formulate Sound Test Accommodation Decisions for Students with Learning Disabilities

This paper introduces a data-based approach as an alternative way to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for students with LD. Three rationales for the approach are provided: (a) an inadequate research base to guide decision-making; (b) the heterogeneity of the LD population; and (c) problems with teachers' use of subjective judgment. Well-controlled studies on test accommodations are too scarce to draw firm conclusions about effects for the group of students labeled learning disabled (LD). Moreover, in light of the heterogeneity of learning disabilities, the individual, rather than the LD label, may be the more appropriate unit for deciding which test accommodations preserve the validity of test scores for students with LD. In this paper, we provide a rationale for a data-based approach to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for individual students with LD. Then we describe an objective assessment process teachers may use in determining valid test accommodations. We conclude with recommendations for practitioners.     

Who are Most,Average, or High‐Functioning Adults?

The growing number of high‐functioning adults seeking accommodations from testing agencies and postsecondary institutions presents an urgent need to ensure reliable and valid diagnostic decision making. The potential for this population to make significant contributions to society will be greater if we provide the learning and testing accommodations to allow them access to knowledge, as well as the means to demonstrate their extraordinary abilities. The criteria and decision making used to identify high‐functioning adults with learning disabilities (LD) must be robust yet flexible enough to account for individual differences, measurement fallibility, and examiner expertise. The purpose of this article is to explore legal, measurement, and clinical issues surrounding the provision of accommodations to high‐functioning individuals with LD.     

Use of the WISC-R with a learning disabled population: Some diagnostic implications

A group of 41 learning disabled children in Hawaii, aged 6 to 151/2, were tested on the WISC-R. Two main questions were explored: (a) Do the separate WISC-R tests assess “g” for learning disabled children to the same degree that they do for normal children? (b) Is there significantly more scatter among the tests for learning disabled than for normal youngsters? The answers to these questions were interpreted in terms of their diagnostic significance.     

Learning Disability and Career Entry into the Sciences: A Critical Analysis of Attitudinal Factors

The present study examined the perceptions of 140 parents and 323 teachers regarding career entry into science and engineering for students with learning disabilities. Parents' and teachers' perceptions were assessed on the following eight variables: (a) facility access, (b) expense of accommodations, (c) role models, (d) teacher understanding of students' academic needs, (e) length of learning time, (f) student aptitude and educational preparation, (g) career guidance, and (h) employer attitudes. Results revealed that parents, significantly more than teachers, feel that teachers do not make the necessary effort to accommodate students with learning disabilities and that employers in the science and engineering fields are reluctant to hire persons with learning disabilities. Implications of the results for rehabilitation counselors working with learning disabled students interested in science and engineering are offered.     

Making “secondary intervention” work in a three-tier responsiveness-to-intervention model: findings from the first-grade longitudinal reading study of the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities

Responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) is a method for both preventing and helping to identify learning disabilities. An important feature is its multi-tier structure: primary intervention (tier 1) refers to classroom instruction; secondary intervention (tier 2) usually involves more intensive pullout, small-group instruction; and tertiary intervention (tier 3) typically denotes most intensive special education. Despite RTI’s popularity and promise, there are many questions about how to implement it effectively and efficiently. So, in 2001, the Office of Special Education Programs in the U.S. Department of Education funded the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities to conduct two large-scale, field-based, longitudinal, and experimental RTI studies. Both studies, one in reading and one in math, were conducted at first grade, with annual follow up for 3 years in the reading study and 2 years in the math study. This article summarizes findings from the reading study, which was designed to answer three basic questions about RTI’s pivotal secondary intervention: Who should participate in it? What instruction should be conducted to decrease the prevalence of reading disabilities? How should responsiveness and non-responsiveness be defined?     

Federal law and the accommodation of students with LD: the lawyers' look at the BU decision

This article explores the genesis and development of the Guckenberger v. Boston University case, detailing the pertinent facts and issues of the case and analyzing the court's decision. The overall question posed by the case (as considered from the perspective of the plaintiffs' attorneys) was whether Boston University violated federal law in its response to the requests for reasonable accommodations by students with learning disabilities. The article quotes primarily from the decision issued by Federal Judge Patti Saris. The court's decision signified an important development in the field of higher education and set an extraordinary precedent in favor of students with disabilities under both the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.     

Determining Appropriate Accommodations for Postsecondary Students with Reading and Written Expression Disorders

One of the most significant barriers facing postsecondary students with reading and written expression disorders who are eligible to receive specific accommodations is the lack of professional knowledge pertaining to issues surrounding accommodations. Though guided by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act, the process by which accommodation decisions are made varies considerably across institutions of higher education. Given the recent rise in litigation surrounding the practice of how accommodations are determined as well as the increasing number of postsecondary students with reading and writing disabilities who are requesting accommodations, it is imperative that accommodation decisions be defensible and supported by empirical research. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of current research on the effectiveness of accommodations for postsecondary students with language‐based learning disabilities, discuss important considerations in the accommodation selection process, and offer recommendations for future research.     

Studying Social Development and Learning Disabilities is Not for the Faint‐Hearted: Comments on the Risk/Resilience Framework

Studying social dimensions of learning disabilities is not for the faint‐hearted, in light of the multiple and interactive characteristics of these students and their social/cultural environments. Given the allure of the risk/resilience lens to make sense of these complexities, it would be easy to embrace these concepts too hastily. Four questions seem particularly important: What do we mean by risk and resilience factors? How do we characterize learning disabilities as risk factors?“At risk” for what? How should this framework guide intervention efforts? Rigorous thinking about these issues may enhance the promise of risk/resilience models for future research on social development.     

Notes on authors

Abstract

Although both the number of online learning opportunities and students with disabilities in higher education has increased over the last two decades, students with disabilities may be overlooked. The purpose of this study was to examine attitudes toward requesting accommodations in the online learning environment among college students with disabilities compared with requesting accommodations in the face-to-face learning environment. Accommodations refer to those adjustments and modification made to instructional and/or curricular requirements in order for students with disabilities to fully participate in a course (Rehabilitation Act of 1973). Results indicate that students with disabilities did not have significantly different attitudes toward requesting accommodations as a whole in the face-to-face versus online learning environments. Results, however, do indicate that students who report having visible disabilities appear to have more positive attitudes toward requesting accommodations in the online versus face-to-face learning environment compared with students who report having hidden disabilities.     

Actors: From Audience to Provider

Abstract

This article describes and analyzes actors' experiences of distance learning systems in a wide variety of cultural and organizational contexts. In line with the project of this special series of issues, results of research, much of which is longitudinal, allow us to suggest answers to the following questions: Who are the actors of distance learning? How has their experience of learning systems evolved over the last thirty years? What roles have information and communication technologies (ICTs) played in this evolution? How do actors assess the effects of these learning systems on themselves, on the system itself, or on the organization? What are the future perspectives?     

The validity and comparability of entrance examination scores after accommodations are made for students with LD

Every year, thousands of college and university applicants with learning disabilities (LD) present scores from standardized examinations as part of the admissions process for postsecondary education. Many of these scores are from tests administered with nonstandard procedures due to the examinees' learning disabilities. Using a sample of college students with LD and a control sample, this study investigated the criterion validity and comparability of scores on the Miller Analogies Test when accommodations for the examinees with LD were in place. Scores for examinees with LD from test administrations with accommodations were similar to those of examinees without LD on standard administrations, but less well associated with grade point averages. The results of this study provide evidence that although scores for examinees with LD from nonstandard test administrations are comparable to scores for examinees without LD, they have less criterion validity and are less meaningful for their intended purpose.     

Entrance test accommodations,admission and enrollment of students with learning disabilities in teacher training colleges in Israel

The ‘Saf’ (threshold) exam is the entry exam taken by approximately 40% of the students enrolled in teacher training colleges in Israel. Students with learning disabilities may apply and be granted testing accommodations on this exam. This study examines the percentage of students with testing accommodations among the testees and those who began their studies in 2003. Their test and subtest scores were compared to those of students without accommodations as were grades on high school matriculation exams. Characteristics such as gender, age, difficulties as reported in assessments and assessment history were examined. Enrollment patterns in the various colleges departments were noted. Satisfaction with the testing accommodations process was looked at as well. Ramifications and recommendations are discussed vis a vis future research needed and policies regarding the admission of students with learning disabilities to institutions of higher learning.     

Misconceptions Regarding Accommodations on High‐Stakes Tests: Recommendations for Preparing Disability Documentation for Test Takers with Learning Disabilities

The process of submitting documentation to testing agencies as proof of a disability can be time consuming, expensive, and even intimidating to test takers with learning disabilities. Misconceptions about the accommodations review process employed by testing agencies add to the anxiety that many test takers feel around obtaining approval for high‐stakes test accommodations. The objective of this article is to clarify some of these misconceptions as well as shed more light on the accommodation decision‐making process employed by testing agencies.     

Generic skills assessment: A new problem for tertiary students with learning disabilities

Abstract

A simmering controversy has been running in the United States since 1995 over the perceived conflict between the maintenance of academic standards and the rights of disabled university students. Recent developments are set to raise the same issue in Australian universities. The first of these developments is the shift in the emphasis of academic standards with the implementation of the Generic Skills Assessment (GSA) program. The second is the release of draft disability standards for education to streamline enforcement of the Commonwealth's Disability Discrimination Act (DDA).

The DDA protects disabled people against discrimination in education. Amongst the many types of disabled people protected are those who are unable to read, write or communicate effectively because of learning disabilities, and others who are unable to concentrate and pay attention properly because of mental disorders. Hitherto, universities have found ways to comply with the DDA without compromising academic standards by providing these types of disabled students with accommodations that take the form of alternative methods of examination, extra exam time, technological assistance, scribes, readers, etc. However, the GSA has been designed for standardised implementation and doesn't allow for this type of flexibility. Further, generic skills testing specifically discriminates against students with learning disabilities and some mental disorders because it is the inability to master particular types of generic skills that defines these types of disabilities.     

The Impact of Gender,Accommodations, and Disability on the Academic Performance of Canadian University Students with LD and/or ADHD

Academic accommodations for students experiencing disabilities are increasingly available at postsecondary institutions. More studies of the efficacy of accommodations for student success are warranted, however. Given the increased gender gap in university participation, more focus on the unique impact of gender is also needed. Using a sample of students registered with Access and Inclusion Services with learning disabilities (LD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and combined LD/ADHD at a Canadian undergraduate university (N = 661), we explored the impact of gender on academic performance and accommodation usage. Next, we examined how gender intersected with the impact of academic accommodations on academic performance. Women, on average, demonstrated better academic performance. Academic strategies and assistive technologies were not associated with higher academic performance. However, testing accommodations (extended time and environmental accommodations) were positively associated with academic performance for men with LD or ADHD, but not for the combined group LD/ADHD. For the former two, the more tests accommodated, the higher the academic performance. Furthermore, this gender association was most prominent for students experiencing ADHD. Interpretations and policy recommendations related to these findings are presented.     

‘What can I do to help?’: Postsecondary students with learning disabilities' perceptions of instructors' classroom accommodations

This qualitative research report adopts a critical pedagogy perspective to examine the provision of classroom accommodations for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Although instructors in the United States are bound to abide by disability rights laws, we also believe instructors can act in ways that allow students to feel comfortable in disclosing their disabilities and in requesting and accessing accommodations for these disabilities. We engaged the voices of 10 university students living with learning disabilities through a series of semi‐structured interviews. These students offered a variety of statements on the ways that their disabilities were accommodated or not by their instructors. We classified these perceptions into three kinds of accommodation perceived by university students with learning disabilities: non‐accommodation, formal accommodation and accommodation for all students. We discuss the implications that these types of accommodations have for pedagogy and offer recommendations for effective techniques for accommodating for all. We hope the voices of these students will serve to enhance communication between students with learning disabilities and their professors.     

Engaging and training students in the development of inclusive learning materials for their peers

With equal access requirements and increasing rates of enrolment of students with disabilities in higher education, universities must find appropriate and efficient ways to create accessible materials which benefit and support all students. In response to cuts to disability funding, issues relating to the provision of an inclusive curriculum are now dominating institutional policy and educational discourses. This paper reports on a trans-Atlantic project which utilised student employees to convert and develop inclusive learning materials for their peers, with the expressed purpose of piloting a sustainable intervention method generalisable to meeting similar needs of diverse universities for inclusive material provision and a future workforce aware of disability issues and accommodations. Qualitative in-depth interviews with ten students (eight UK and two US) find that involving student employees in the delivery of inclusive materials improves partnerships and attitudes around disability and accessibility measures.