Political prioritization of early childhood education in low- and middle-income countries

Despite a growing evidence base and global consensus on the importance of Early Childhood Education (ECE), it remains under-resourced and comparatively neglected as a policy issue. This paper seeks to better understand which factors facilitate or impede efforts to make ECE a political priority in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), applying a framework used primarily in global public health. We draw on a comparative analysis of four countries: Ethiopia, Liberia, Pakistan (Punjab Province), and Tanzania. Even though each of these countries has undertaken recent, concrete efforts to scale ECE, the political economy conditions to support sustained commitment are only partially present. National policymakers have responded to global efforts to advance early childhood development, and ideas about the benefits of ECE have gained significant traction. With few exceptions, however, civil society mobilization around ECE is relatively weak, and focusing events and prominent champions for ECE are uncommon. Taken together, these factors are consistent with a strong rhetorical commitment to early learning but a lack of sustained follow-through and resource provision.     

School inspections in low- and middle-income countries: Explaining impact and mechanisms of impact

Many efforts to implement and improve school inspections have been modelled on examples from high-income countries, and many studies on the effectiveness of such systems have also only been carried out in these countries. However, local contexts in low- and middle-income countries are very different from those in developed countries, and findings about the effectiveness of school inspections from Western studies are therefore not easily transferable to low- and middle-income countries. Existing literature portrays complex and varied links amongst governance context, policy, design of accountability systems, mechanisms of impact and school outcomes that make translation of conditions across studies challenging. This paper presents the results of a systematic review about the conditions under which school inspections lead to improvement in schools and to positive learning outcomes for schoolchildren in low- and middle-income countries, especially the poorest and most marginalised.     

Aiming higher: Learning profiles and gender equality in 10 low- and middle-income countries

Global education goals have many aims, among them universal basic schooling, universal literacy and numeracy, and gender equality. We use unique, nationally representative data on adult learning outcomes to examine the link between schooling and literacy in ten low- and middle-income countries. We simulate scenarios of increasing school grade attainment, increasing learning per year, and achieving gender equality, and examine learning outcomes in each. In six of the ten countries only about half or less of younger adults (aged 18−37) with primary completion as their highest schooling can read a few sentences without help. Simulations show that achieving universal primary completion would still leave many adults functionally illiterate: in India nearly a third of adults would still be unable to read. Our simulations further show that, while achieving equality of schooling attainment would produce improvements in women’s literacy, in many countries this would still leave a third of women unable to read. Gender equality of learning per year produces very little gain as, once in school, girls’ learning nearly matches that of boys. In nearly all countries steepening the learning profiles for all students to the best-performing of the ten countries would lead to greater gains in literacy for women than achieving gender equality in both schooling and learning. Achieving learning for all will require both eliminating gender gaps but also improving how much is learned while in school.     

Child discipline in low- and middle-income countries: Socioeconomic disparities at the household- and country-level

BackgroundIn the past month, an estimated eight of ten children worldwide have experienced violent discipline. Understanding the economic and social contexts in which parents are more likely to use particular disciplinary practices is necessary to reduce violence against children. Critical examination of disciplinary practices and beliefs in cross-country analysis of low- and middle-income countries (LMICS) has been limited.ObjectiveTo estimate the association of country-level stressors and household-level economic stressors with disciplinary behaviors and beliefs.Participants and settingUsing Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey data between 2010 and 2013, 231,221 parents from 32 LMICS were included.MethodsThe prevalence of past-month nonviolent discipline, physical discipline, psychological aggression, belief in the utility of physical discipline, and incongruence of disciplinary practice and belief were estimated. Country-level prevalence was regressed on country-level stressors (economic burden, economic inequality, human security, and human development). Individual-level disciplinary practices and beliefs were regressed on household wealth.ResultsCountry-level stressors predicted psychological and physical discipline use and belief in the utility of physical discipline. Lower household wealth was associated with increased violent disciplinary practice and belief. Lower household wealth was associated with increased likelihood of using violent discipline, even when the caregiver did not believe in its utility (OR = 1.63 [1.34, 1.98]).ConclusionsDiscipline use and belief in LMICS should be understood within the context of salient societal and household stressors.Parental disciplinary beliefs and practices reflect complex interplay with broader social, political and economic contexts and should not be taken to be defined by monolithic views of culture.     

Classroom literacy practices in low- and middle-income countries: an interpretative synthesis of ethnographic studies

Surveys in low- and middle-income (LMI countries) reveal persistently low levels of learning among children in disadvantaged communities. Against this background, our synthesis of ethnographies aims at a fresh interpretation of classroom practices to clarify instruction-related barriers to literacy attainments. The review focuses on the period from 1990, the year of the UN Declaration of Education for All, to 2014. Sixteen studies focusing on children up to Grade 4 from eleven LMI countries met criteria for methodological rigour. The synthesis, structured within socio-cultural and psycholinguistic frameworks, examined vignettes of teacher- and child-initiated talk and activities related to language and literacy learning. Trends captured include instructions that are light on explanation, skewed towards reinforcing orthographic knowledge, and leaving the advancing of children’s broader linguistic and general knowledge to incidental learning. Learning from the peer group is common and, in bi- and multilingual settings, use of home language as a learning resource is uncommon. It is proposed that a cultural analysis of choral lessons, writing for learning, peer tutoring and community-specific preferences for language of instruction is required to understand whether embedding inference-focused interventions within these practices will promote more effective teaching and learning.     

Tipping the scales: overcoming obstacles to support school readiness for all in low- and middle-income countries

Despite evidence for the substantial benefits of school readiness among children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), most lack access to any pre-primary education at all, let alone high-quality preprimary education. In this article, we discuss obstacles and example of solutions to providing universal access to high-quality preprimary education in LMICs. We address (1) the need for a vision among policymakers, educators and families of what high-quality preprimary education should look like and how it could be provided in their context, and the motivation to make the vision a reality; (2) human resources, including motivated, skilled and qualified teachers as the center of a broad support system at national, regional and local levels; (3) material resources and infrastructure, including culturally appropriate play materials and child-friendly spaces; and (4) stable financing that allows for flexible adaptations of the model to different local contexts. For each element, we provide examples of these challenges and how they can be addressed, with a geographical focus on West Africa, the Middle East, Southern and Eastern Asia.     

How to recruit teachers for hard-to-staff schools: A systematic review of evidence from low- and middle-income countries

Education systems struggle to staff schools in rural areas or in areas with high concentrations of poverty. Potential policy solutions include financial incentives, mandatory rotations, and local recruitment drives, among others. First, this systematic review provides evidence on challenges with teacher staffing in certain types of schools. We observe lower teacher skill and higher teacher absence in rural areas in many countries. Second, the review synthesizes available experimental and quasi-experimental studies of government-implemented policies to increase the quantity or quality of teachers in hard-to-staff schools in low- or middle-income countries. Financial incentives—the most evaluated policies—are often effective at increasing the supply or reducing the turnover of teachers in hard-to-staff schools, and well-designed incentives can also increase the quality of teachers in these schools. Impacts on student outcomes are often positive. Although there are fewer evaluations, behavioral and informational interventions have been cost-effective in reducing vacancies in two countries.     

A sex-disaggregated analysis of how emotional violence relates to suicide ideation in low- and middle-income countries

BackgroundIn recent years, research has increasingly focused on examining the relationship between one type of child maltreatment -- emotional violence -- and suicidal behaviors. However, the growing body of empirical evidence supporting these associations has been mostly limited to high-income contexts.ObjectiveThis study examines how exposure to emotional violence is associated with suicide ideation in childhood and adolescence in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and whether this association differs by sex.Participants and settingWe employ nationally representative samples of 13–24 year-old males and females from the Violence Against Children Surveys in Tanzania (conducted in 2009), Kenya (2010), and Haiti (2012).MethodsWe use logistic regressions to estimate the odds of ever reporting suicide ideation, separately, for each country; models control for self-reported exposure to emotional violence, physical violence from a caregiver, physical violence by an adult in the community, sexual violence, intimate partner violence, and age. Formal moderation by sex for each form of child maltreatment is tested using interaction terms.ResultsWe find the odds of suicide ideation are consistently and significantly greater for adolescents who report ever exposure to emotional violence. This same consistency is not observed for any other form of maltreatment across countries. The size of the relationship between emotional violence and suicide ideation is statistically significantly larger for males in Kenya only.ConclusionResearch in LMICs should explore the mediating factors linking emotional abuse in childhood and adolescence to suicide ideation in adolescence, paying special attention to whether these pathways might operate differently by sex.     

Understanding caregivers' attitudes towards physical punishment of children: evidence from 34 low- and middle-income countries

Objectives

This article presents findings on caregivers’ attitudes towards physical punishment of children from 34 household surveys conducted in low- and middle-income countries in 2005 and 2006. The article analyzes the variability in attitudes by background characteristics of the respondents to examine whether various factors at the individual and family levels correlate with the caregivers’ beliefs in the need for violent discipline. The article also examines to what extent attitudes influence behaviors and compares groups of respondents to see how attitudes relate to disciplinary practices across caregivers of different socio-economic backgrounds.

Methods

The analysis is based on nationally representative data from 33 MICS and 1 DHS surveys. Questions on child discipline were addressed to the mother (or primary caregiver) of one randomly selected child aged 2–14 years in each household. The questionnaire asked whether any member of the household had used various violent and non-violent disciplinary practices with that child during the past month. Additionally, the interviewers asked the respondent if she believed that, in order to bring up that child properly, physical punishment was necessary. The sample included 166,635 mothers/primary caregivers.

Results

The analysis shows that, in most countries, the majority of mothers/primary caregivers did not think there was a need for physical punishment. Overall, characteristics such as household wealth and size, educational level and age, as well as place of residence were significantly associated with caregivers’ attitudes. The analysis confirms that beliefs influence disciplinary practices to a large degree: in all the countries but two, children were significantly more likely to experience physical punishment if their mothers/primary caregivers thought such punishment was needed. However, large proportions of children were found to be subject to physical punishment even if their mothers/primary caregivers did not consider this method necessary. This discrepancy between attitudes and behaviors is observed, although to different extents, in all the countries and across groups of mothers/primary caregivers with different levels of education and wealth.

Conclusions

The data presented in this article are among the few resources available to help develop a more global understanding of caregivers’ motivation in using violent discipline across a multitude of low- and middle-income countries. As such, the analysis of these data provides important insights for the development of effective strategies that will promote positive parenting practices. However, further data collection and analysis are needed to fully understand the reasons why physical punishment is used – even when caregivers do not think such method is necessary – opening the door for an even sharper programmatic response to change the practice.     

Attention to menstrual hygiene management in schools: An analysis of education policy documents in low- and middle-income countries

Recent decades have seen a push for gender parity in education in low resource countries. Attention is shifting to how school environments hinder the achievement of gender equality. One effort, primarily led by the water, sanitation and hygiene sector, includes a focus on the needs of menstruating girls. This policy review aims to understand how the education sector is addressing menstruation management. We conducted an analysis of select education policy documents in 21 countries, including a frequency count and narrative analysis of relevant keywords. Findings suggest that existing national education policies inadequately provide for sufficient water and sanitation facilities or other menstruation-related improvements needed in schools. More recently developed WASH in schools policies present examples of potential approaches for education stakeholders to better address girls’ menstrual needs in school through policy and program responses.     

Early childhood exposure to non-violent discipline and physical and psychological aggression in low- and middle-income countries: National,regional, and global prevalence estimates

Background: Advocates for children’s rights have recommended the elimination of all forms of violent discipline given its detrimental effects on children’s development. Yet, little is known about the global prevalence of various forms of discipline, including physical and psychological aggression, as well as alternative forms of non-violent discipline, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).Objective: This study aims to obtain national, regional, and global prevalence estimates of the percentage and number of 2- to- 4-y-olds in LMICs exposed to these disciplinary practices by their caregivers.Participants and setting: We use data collected between 2010 and 2016 from 107,063 2- to- 4-y-old children living in 49 LMICs as part of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS).Methods: Using the best-fitting model based on cross-validation techniques, we performed predictive modeling to generate country-level prevalence estimates for 131 LMICs in 2013, as well as 95% confidence intervals around these estimates.Results: We estimate that 296.2 million 2- to- 4-y-olds (95% CI 256.9, 300.9) were exposed to non-violent discipline in 2013, which corresponds to 83.9% of the population. Furthermore, 220.4 million (95% CI 138.1, 283.7) and 230.7 million (95% CI 128.4, 300.6) children were exposed to aggressive physical and psychological discipline, respectively, which corresponds to prevalence of 62.5% and 65.4%. We also identify a high heterogeneity in the estimates across and within regions, finding a higher prevalence of both violent disciplinary methods in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.Conclusions: These results suggest the need for new policies and programs to minimize violent discipline around the world.     

PISA and scientific literacy: similarities and differences between the nordic countries

In this paper we have set out to search for similarities and differences between the Nordic countries concerning patterns of competencies defined as scientific literacy in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study. The first part focuses on gender differences concerning the two types of competencies, understanding of scientific concepts versus skills in scientific reasoning, based on analyses of sum scores of groups of items. The second part focuses on differences and similarities between countries based on item‐by‐item analyses. Correlations between each Nordic country (as well as the Nordic group as a whole) and every other country have been used to look for a Nordic pattern. In the last part cluster analysis has been used to see how countries establish clusters and whether these clusters represent meaningful groups in a geographical, cultural or political context.     

Seeing education with one's own eyes and through PISA lenses: considerations of the reception of PISA in European countries

The paper addresses the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) as a public policy instrument, whose worldwide circulation is mediated by processes of reinterpretation, negotiation, and re-contextualization, where national, local, and international agencies intertwine. It is focused on the active reception of PISA in six European spaces (Francophone Belgium, France, Hungary, Portugal, Romania, and Scotland) along its first three cycles. The paper identifies two contrasting developments: the Program's divergent uses and its attractiveness in different social worlds. The paper gives particular attention to what is called the ‘update of reference societies’ in the context of national receptions of PISA. These ‘updates’ are analyzed as part of a composite process that involves domestic reasons, either related to current agendas for education or to deep historical factors, and injunctions related to PISA's rationale and PISA objects.     

School efficiency in low and middle income countries: An analysis based on PISA for development learning survey

This study provides new evidence on school efficiency for low and middle income countries. We use data from PISA for Development (2017) for seven countries to obtain estimates on school efficiency using data envelopment analysis, both for cognitive and non-cognitive outputs, and their determinants. We find that there is a scope to increase efficiency by 20–22% via boosting both types of educational outputs and by reducing within-country disparity on schools’ efficiency scores by weakening the impact of students’ disadvantages. Our results suggest that schools cognitive inequality can be reduced alongside inefficiency. Cross-country results suggest similar drivers of efficiency across countries, at least for students’ school determinants, though we find more nuanced results on teachers and policies determinants for efficiency.     

Placing PISA and PISA for schools in two federalisms,Australia and the USA

ABSTRACT

This paper accepts that the OECD’s PISA has become influential in policy terms globally, but analyses the ways that the main PISA and PISA for Schools tests are positioned differently in Australia and the USA because of contrasting educational federalisms in the two nations. Our argument is that while PISA is undoubtedly influential, its effects are nonetheless mediated by the political structures – here, the different models of federalism – present within different nations, which in turn leads to quite distinct ‘PISA effects’. For instance, Australia oversamples on main PISA to make its data available for national and state-level policymaking, whereas the USA, with its focus on local governance in schooling, does not oversample, meaning that main PISA does not have a comparable policy salience as in Australia. Conversely, the newer PISA for Schools test originated in the USA with pressure from educators and philanthropic interests and has been implemented in a good number of schools, but it has not been taken up in the same way in Australia. Our analyses show how these differences reflect the idiosyncratic workings of federalism in the two nations, in which the federal government has a stronger policy and funding role in Australia than has hitherto been the case for the federal government in the USA.