Language‐Switching Costs in Bilingual Mathematics Learning

Behavioral studies on bilingual learning have revealed cognitive costs (lower accuracy and/or higher processing time) when the language of application differs from the language of learning. The aim of this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study was to provide insights into the cognitive underpinnings of these costs (so‐called language‐switching costs) in mathematics. Twenty‐nine bilingual adults underwent a 4‐day arithmetic training in one language, followed by an fMRI test session in which they had to solve the trained problems in both languages. Language‐switching costs were accompanied by increased activation in areas associated with magnitude processing (intraparietal sulcus), visuo‐spatial imagery (precuneus), numerical stimulus recognition (fusiform gyrus) and executive functions (frontal areas). These findings suggest that language‐switching costs in arithmetic are due to additional numerical information processing. Bilingual education programs need to take these findings into account to reduce language‐switching costs in order to fully exploit the potential of bilingual learning.     

Solving arithmetic problems in first and second language: Does the language context matter?

Learning mathematics in a second language is a challenge for many learners. The purpose of the study was to provide new insights into the role of the language context in mathematic learning and more particularly arithmetic problem solving. We investigated this question in a German–French bilingual educational setting in Luxembourg. Participants with increasing bilingual proficiency levels were invited to solve additions in both their first and second instruction languages: German and French. Arithmetic problems were presented in two different conditions: preceded by a semantic judgment or without additional language context. In the French session we observed that additions were systematically performed faster in the condition with an additional language context. In contrast no effect of the context was observed in the German session. In conclusion, providing a language context enhanced arithmetic performances in bilinguals' second instruction language. This finding entails implications for designing optimal mathematic learning environments in multilingual educational settings.     

Towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals: Revisiting language of instruction in Tanzanian secondary schools

Research has been conducted on the detrimental effects of using a foreign language for learning in Tanzania’s secondary schools. While most studies recommend the use of a familiar language for instruction, the use of a foreign language in secondary education in Tanzania has been maintained. This has many consequences on the quality of education, and contributes to student dropout. Presenting a study carried out in the semi-rural areas of Dar es Salaam region in Tanzania, this article examines the extent to which language of instruction (LOI) contributes to school dropout. It postulates that the use of a foreign language for teaching and learning in Tanzanian secondary schools hinders the achievement of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The study’s findings, drawn from exploratory and qualitative narrative research, indicate that, notwithstanding the presence of several other factors, the use of a foreign language as LOI is a major contributor to student dropout. The use of an unfamiliar language of instruction contributes to students’ lack of interest in and disengagement from learning, which ultimately pushes them out of the school system. This is because students usually perform poorly when an unfamiliar language is used as the language of examination and in classroom interaction. The study also reveals that the voices of both teachers and students are not in consonance with what would be expected in an ideal classroom teaching and learning environment. Student dropout from secondary education caused by an inappropriate LOI leads to myriad further problems which, in turn, negatively affect realisation of the SDGs in Tanzania. This article, therefore, concludes that LOI needs to be strongly factored into the development agenda. In order to ensure equitable access to quality secondary education, as required by SDG 4, the Government of Tanzania needs to adopt a language policy that promotes effective teaching and equal access to quality education in secondary schools.     

浅析影响双语掌握的心理因素

加强少数民族汉语教学,实现“民汉兼通”是我区少数民族教育事业发展的一项重要战略举措。本文从双语学习者的年龄、智力发展水平、认知风格、对第二语言的态度、学习动机以及第二语言的学习方法等方面阐述和分析了影响双语掌握的心理因素。     

Pathways to arithmetic: The role of visual-spatial and language skills in written arithmetic,arithmetic word problems,and nonsymbolic arithmetic

This study set out to develop and test a pathway model of the relations between general cognitive skills, specifically visual-spatial and spoken and written language skills, and competence in three forms of arithmetic that vary in modes of number representation. A total of 88 Chinese 4-year-olds participated and were tested first in kindergarten second grade (K2) and then in kindergarten third grade (K3). Language skills, including phonological, morphological, and visual-orthographic skills, and visual-spatial skills were measured at K2, and arithmetic outcomes, including written arithmetic, word problems, and nonsymbolic arithmetic, at K3. The results generally supported our model. Specifically, visual-spatial skills contributed to the prediction of all three types of arithmetic outcomes. Morphological skills predicted word problems, whereas phonological skills predicted written arithmetic. Finally, visual-orthographic skills contributed to both written and nonsymbolic arithmetic. These findings underscore the importance of delineating the specificity of cognitive processes in learning diverse forms of arithmetic.     

中等职业学校实施双语教学的思考

从双语教学、双语教育的概念及关系阐述入手,认清双语教学的实质和正确定位我国的双语教学;通过对中等职业学校实施双语教学的现实和理论依据的分析,指出其实施双语教学的必要性,对其实施双语教学面临的教育改革,如师资、教材改革、双语氛围创设等关键问题进行了对策探讨。     

Bilingualism and mathematical reasoning in English as a second language

This paper examines the ability of bilingual children to reason deductively in mathematics. In particular, the findings of a recent study of bilingual Punjabi, Mirpuri, Italian and Jamaican 11–13 year old children growing up in England are reported. It is found that first language competence is an important factor in the child's ability to reason in mathematics in English as a second language. This gives considerable support to theories which assert that a cognitively and academically beneficial form of bilingualism can only be achieved on the basis of adequately developed first language skills. However for both English monolingual and bilingual children knowledge of logical connectives in English is a crucial factor. It is suggested that published weaknesses in mathematics found among certain Asian and West Indian pupils may well be due to language factors. Furthermore there are strong cultural forces which predispose differential performance among boys and girls. The implications of the findings for a relevant mathematical education for bilingual children are discussed.     

Public perception of early childhood language policy in Ghana: an exploratory study

This article explores current public perceptions in Ghana about the National Literacy Acceleration Programme (NALAP), a mother tongue-based bilingual medium of instruction (MTB-BMoI) policy for early childhood education. The researchers conducted an exploratory study of public reactions towards the Minister for Education’s statement on revamping the program made at the Shared Prosperity Forum held in Accra, Ghana. The article includes an overview of the history of early childhood education language of instruction (LoI) in Ghana and the rationale for the NALAP. Conversations with education officers and parents about their views on the NALAP were analyzed. The findings reflect strong negative feelings about the program among many Ghanaians who express a preference for English-only LoI. The paper discusses the importance of bilingual LoI in early childhood as well as the need to obtain public support, especially among parents, to facilitate full implementation of the program in Ghana. Recommendations for public engagement are proposed.     

双语教学环境下专业课教师和外语教师合作模式的探索

双语教学是实现高等教育国际化,培养具有国际交流能力的复合型人才的有效途径,然而双语教师的匮乏已成为制约双语教学发展的瓶颈。在双语教学环境下医学专业课教师和英语教师合作进行教学的尝试,可以发挥医学专业课教师和英语教师各自的优势,不仅有利于双语教师的成长,也能使学生在学科知识和英语技能发展两方面收到良好的效果。     

少数民族双语教学中存在的问题及其对策——以东乡族为个案

作为有语言无文字民族的东乡族基础教育中的双语教学存在着教学用语不便、作为第二语言的汉语过渡困难、教学效率低下、双语师资缺乏等问题 ,其原因在于缺乏对此类双语教学的研究 ,缺乏对学生学习汉语的有效指导等。必须对此类无文字民族辅助性双语教学中汉语学习的必要性、时间、途径、方式方法以及民族语的作用等问题进行深刻的理论思考和研究 ,探讨出尽快掌握汉语 ,以提高其双语教学水平及基础教育质量的策略和模式。     

When a Bilingual Child Describes Living Things: An Analysis of Conceptual Understandings from a Language Perspective

With increasing numbers of students learning science through a second language in many school contexts, there is a need for research to focus on the impact language has on students’ understanding of science concepts. Like other countries, Brunei has adopted a bilingual system of education that incorporates two languages in imparting its curriculum. For the first three years of school, Brunei children are taught in Malay and then for the remainder of their education, instruction is in English. This research is concerned with the influence that this bilingual education system has on children’s learning of science. The purpose was to document the patterns of Brunei students’ developing understandings of the concepts of living and non-living things and examine the impact in the change in language as the medium of instruction. A cross-sectional case study design was used in one primary school. Data collection included an interview (n = 75), which consisted of forced-response and semi-structured interview questions, a categorisation task and classroom observation. Data were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively. The results indicate that the transition from Malay to English as the language of instruction from Primary 4 onwards restricted the students’ ability to express their understandings about living things, to discuss related scientific concepts and to interpret and analyse scientific questions. From a social constructivist perspective these language factors will potentially impact on the students’ cognitive development by limiting the expected growth of the students’ understandings of the concepts of living and non-living things. A paper accepted by Research in Science Education, August, 2006.     

Effectiveness of bilingual education in Cambodia: a longitudinal comparative case study of ethnic minority children in bilingual and monolingual schools

There is little research in the developing countries of South East Asia on the effectiveness of bilingual education programmes that use first language instruction for ethnic minority children. This study investigated the effectiveness of a bilingual education programme involving ethnic minority children in Cambodia by comparing their performance in mathematics, Khmer literacy and oral Khmer to their ethnic minority peers whose education is in the national language only. The findings show that students in the bilingual schools performed better in mathematics than their peers in the monolingual schools, but the differences in Khmer literacy and oral Khmer test scores were statistically insignificant. The study suggests that bilingual education using first language instruction could benefit academic development among ethnic minority students in Cambodia, at least in terms of mathematics achievement.     

Neural Differences in Bilingual Children's Arithmetic Processing Depending on Language of Instruction

Many children in bilingual regions follow lessons in a language at school (school‐language) that they hardly ever speak at home or in other informal settings. What are the neural effects of this phenomenon? This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study investigates the effects of using school‐language on brain activity during a high cognitive task in two groups of French/Dutch bilingual children. Participants were asked to assess the correctness of 3‐operand (e.g., 5 ? 2 = 3) and 4‐operand (e.g., 3 ? 2 = 1 + 4) equations, respectively. Instructions about the task were given either in the children's school‐language or in another language that they only used at home. It was found that although both groups recruited a visuomotor occipitofrontal network in the left hemisphere, the children who performed the task in their school‐language showed less activation than the children who did not, indicating the importance of language of instruction for bilingual children's arithmetic processing.     

A comparative study of language learning strategy use in an efl context: Monolingual korean and bilingual korean-chinese university students

Since language is socially mediated and context dependent, it would be expected that learners’ use of language learning strategies may vary with the environment. Using the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1990), this study examines the language learning behaviors and thought processes of two geographically and socio-educationally different groups by comparing learning strategy use as reported by 428 monolingual Korean and 420 bilingual Korean-Chinese university students. Monolinguals reported using compensation strategies most and affective strategies least. Bilinguals preferred to use metacognitive strategies most and memory strategies least. Despite a less favorable formal English education environment in the Korean-Chinese community and less experience in learning English, bilingual Korean-Chinese reported higher use of learning strategies, which is arguably indicative of the positive effects of the bilingual context in learning a new language.     

Using what matters to students in bilingual mathematics problems

In this study, the author represented what matters to bilingual students in their everyday lives—namely bilingualism and everyday experiences—in school-based mathematical problems. Solving problems in pairs, students demonstrated different patterns of organizing and coordinating talk across problem contexts and across languages. Because these patterns bear consequences for how bilinguals experience mathematics learning, the author takes these patterns as the basis to argue that mathematics education for bilingual students should capitalize on bilingualism and experiences as cognitive resources.     

第二语言习得与双语教育最佳时机研究述评

对于儿童第二语言习得的关键期学术界尚未有定论,一般认为2岁至青春期前后特别是学前阶段是儿童学习第二语言的最佳时机。随着脑科学的发展以及对儿童认知发展规律的进一步认识,越来越多的实验研究表明在儿童早期阶段学习两种语言存在着明显的优势,更有利于儿童的语言、认知、智力、心理能力等方面的发展。在实施双语教育的地区,第二语言学习与双语教育要抓住最佳时机,家庭环境要尽早支持幼儿自然习得双语,正规学校系统要在学前阶段尽早开展双语教育。     

The relationship between language and reading in bilingual English-Arabic children

The connection between language and reading is well established across many languages studied to date. Little is known, however, about the role of language in reading in Arabic??a Semitic language characterized by diglossia??in which the oral and written varieties differ across language components. This study examined the relationship among multiple components of language, namely, phonology, morphology, and vocabulary and reading outcomes in 83 bilingual English-Arabic children. Results revealed associations between phonological awareness skills across English and Arabic. These associations did not hold for morphological awareness skills. Results also revealed that for Arabic and English, phonological awareness predicted word and pseudoword reading accuracy and vocabulary predicted reading comprehension. These findings are consistent with the tenets of the extended version of the Triangle Model of reading, which underscores the importance of multiple language components in predicting reading outcomes. Implications for future research, early intervention, and instruction with bilingual children are highlighted.     

双语教育的理念

双语教育作为第二语言习得的有效途径在国内外教育领域发挥着日趋重要的作用。双语教学的理念、教学模式、教学功能以及国内外的成功经验值得分析探讨。双语教学能够促进学生思维中双语转换机制的形成,实现最大的交际性,有利于人才素质的培养,具有良好的发展前景。     

The challenge of balancing content and language: Perceptions of Dutch bilingual education history teachers

The role of subject teachers in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has received little attention, since most research focuses on language learning results of students. This exploratory study aims to gain insight into the perceptions of Dutch bilingual education history teachers by comparing teaching CLIL with regular history teaching. We used questionnaires and interviews to collect data. Results show that bilingual education history teachers perceived their dual task as language and subject teachers to be challenging. Teaching in English also enriched their teaching skills and eventually had a positive influence on their level of job satisfaction.     

Negotiation,embeddedness, and non-threatening learning environments as themes of science and language convergence for English language learners

In this review, we explore the notion of teaching science to English language learners (ELLs) as a balancing act between simultaneously focusing on language and content development, on the one hand, and between structuring instruction and focusing on student learning processes, on the other hand. This exploration is conducted through the lens of a theoretical framework embedded in the Science Writing Heuristic approach, an approach exemplifying immersive orientation to argument-based inquiry. Three learning processes (learning through the language of science, learning about the language of science and living the language of science) and three classroom structures (collective zone of proximal development, symmetric power and trust relationships and teacher as decision-maker) are explored in relation to learning theories and empirical findings from second language acquisition and science, multicultural and teacher education bodies of work. Three themes – negotiation, embeddedness and non-threatening learning environments – to inform ELL science education emerged from the review.