Ageism at university: A comparative analysis of young and older adult students

ABSTRACT

This study undertakes a comparative analysis of the negative stereotypes of older persons described by young and older adult university students at the University of Castilla-La Mancha. This study is innovative in that it compares three analytical perspectives: the perception of young students (18–27 years); the perception of older adult students (50 years and above) regarding older persons (hetero-stereotypes); and, finally, the perception of older adult students with regard to themselves as part of the group of older adult students (self-stereotypes).

The sample is made up of 460 young students and 148 older adult students who completed the Questionnaire on Negative Ageing Stereotypes (QNAS), comprising three dimensions: health; character and personality; and social relationships and motivation. A statistical analysis was subsequently carried out using the independent samples t-test in the IBM Statistics 19.0 program.

Of note among the principal results is the low level of negative stereotypes reported among the groups studied, as well as the existence of significant differences in their means, which indicate that the negative stereotypes of the groups differed. The most stereotyped of the dimensions analyzed was character and personality. In contrast, the least-stereotyped dimension was that of social relationships and motivation. Finally, the dimension of health occupied an intermediate position. With regard to the three perspectives studied, the older adult group (hetero-stereotypes) was the most stereotyped, followed by the young students and, finally, the older adult students with reference to self-stereotypes.     

Children’s stereotypes of older adults: Evaluating contributions of cognitive development and social learning

Past research has investigated the development of stereotypes surrounding race and gender in children; however, there is a lack of literature examining the development of children’s stereotypes of older adults. In this study, 163 children from four grades: first (n = 44), fourth (n = 49), fifth (n = 35), and eighth (n = 35) completed a new trait-rating questionnaire assessing their stereotypes of older adults. Children’s stereotypes of older adults were largely positive. Younger children described older adults in more positive, but more stereotyped, ways than older children. Older children’s views shared a stronger relationship with those of their parents and peers compared to younger children. Together, these results support both cognitive development and social influences as contributing factors to the formation of children’s stereotypes of older adults.     

Older Characters in Teen Movies from 1980–2006

Although children as young as age three have already begun to manifest negative stereotypes toward older adults, attitudes toward older adults likely crystallize during late childhood and adolescence and become entrenched by the time an individual reaches young adulthood. Studies have shown that young people view older people in general as ineffective, dependent, lonely, poor, angry, overly wrinkled, ugly, dirty, disabled, and less physically active and healthy than younger adults. Because today's children and adolescents have less contact with older people than in past decades, it is likely that some young people get most of their information about older people and aging from the media. This is all the more likely during the teen years, when vulnerable adolescents purposely seek out certain media to form their identity. This content analysis examined the 60 most popular teen movies from the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s to determine how older people are portrayed. Older people were greatly underrepresented, according to their numbers in the actual U.S. population, making up only 7% of the total number of characters in teen movies. Older people were marginalized in terms of plot and were likely to be featured only as background characters. Of older characters, 60% were portrayed stereotypically, and only 45% of the older characters were portrayed in a positive manner. Also, 32% of older characters were portrayed in a negative manner, and one-fifth of older characters were portrayed only with negative characteristics. The stereotypes that adolescents today hold toward older people, including the belief that they are bad drivers, are angry most of the time, and are senile, were reflected in older character portrayals in these popular teen films. Given the negative representations of older people that adolescents are exposed to in their childhood and during the teen years, it is no wonder that they express negative attitudes toward older people. After years of exposure to media that negatively depict older adults, adolescents have been cultivated to stereotype older people. This has the potential to influence the quality of their interactions with older people, and also influence the way they come to view the prospect of getting old.     

Age Stereotypes of Older Primary Teachers in Taiwan

Elder respect in East Asia has a long history that could be derived from Confucian philosophy. However, with the rapid development of westernization, younger people have gradually depreciated the value of elder respect and seek a reciprocal relationship with the elderly. A literature search revealed that age stereotypes would be both negative and positive. This study employs the qualitative approach, mainly through interviews, to collect college students' attitudes towards older primary teachers. The research findings illustrate three characteristics: (a) the value of elder respect from college students seems to have gradually declined, particularly under the impact of westernization and industrialization, although some students did still believe in elder respect influenced by Confucian philosophy; (b) some students' negative stereotypes of older primary teachers include that older primary teachers are resistant to change, unwilling to accept new ideas, and less motivated to learn; (c) some students' positive stereotypes towards older primary teachers are that they are experienced in teaching and classroom management and role models for younger teachers. This study raises several issues and questions that may contribute to further research. In addition, the study proposes some implications for educational authorities.     

MYTHS OF AGING OR AGEIST STEREOTYPES

This paper is about ageist stereotypes dressed-up in the garb of myth that biases perceptions and experiences of being old. The paper argues current ''mythmaking'' about aging perpetuates that which it intends to dispel: ageism. It considers how traditional myths and folklore explained personal experience, shaped social life, and offered meaning for the unexplainable. The current myths of aging perform these same functions in our culture; however, they are based on half-truths, false knowledge, and stated as ageist stereotypes about that which is known. Current myths of aging found in the media and literature of aging are not myths as such, but ''straw man'' statements that attempt to inform; however, they reinforce misconceptions and wrong information about aging as experienced by the vast majority of older people. Recent studies in the cognitive sciences are reviewed to provide insight about the mind's inherent ability to construct categories, concepts, and stereotypes as it responds to experience. These normal processes need to be better understood, particularly regarding how social stereotypes are constructed. Finally, the paper argues that ageist stereotypes when labeled as ''myth'' even in the pursuit of the realities of aging, neither educate the public about the opportunities and challenges of aging nor inform social and health practitioners about the aged. Three research and educational strategies are outlined for critical studies in aging and educational gerontology.     

The Effect of Implicit Stereotypes on the Physical Performance of Older Adults

The purpose of this study was to explore how stereotypes affect physical performance in older adults. During Experiment 1, older adults were primed with objects representing aging stereotypes to determine whether these objects can activate stereotypes of aging. Results from the first part of this study provide evidence that certain material objects have implicit meaning and can activate stereotypes of aging. During Experiment 2, 96 community dwelling older adults were randomly assigned to one of three groups: exposure to positive stereotypes of aging (n = 32), exposure to negative stereotypes of aging (n = 32), or a neutral condition (n = 31). Gait speed, standing balance, and lower extremity muscle performance were tested before and after exposure to the objects. Results revealed no significant differences between those exposed to positive stereotypes, negative stereotypes, or the neutral condition. Physical performance was not affected by exposure to objects related to stereotypes of aging. Compared to lab settings where stereotypes are activated on a subliminal level, there may be multiple factors competing for the control of behavior when stereotypes are presented as objects, which may lessen the effect of stereotype activation on behavior.     

Different Cultures but Similar Positive Attitudes: A Comparison between Thai and Swedish Nursing Students' Attitudes toward Older People

The proportion of elderly people in the world's population is growing. Thailand and Sweden have disparate cultural traditions of caring for older people, though both countries are facing a larger population of older people. Sweden and Thailand are involved in several cooperative projects and exchange programs for nursing students in this area, raising the questions of if and how the different cultures of gerontological care influence students’ attitudes in the issue. The aim of the study was to compare Swedish and Thai nursing students’ attitudes towards older people. A convenience sample of 241 Thai nursing students and 299 Swedish nursing students participated in the study. The Kogan's Old People Scale, a 34-item questionnaire, was used in this research. The questionnaire consists of 17 positive (OP+) statements and 17 negative (OP-) statements and uses a Likert scale. Concerning attitudes towards older people, there was no significant difference in Swedish and Thai students’ positive scores in the distribution across the groups. In contrast, these students did differ on negative scores across countries (p = .001). This was understood to be related to age; the Swedish students’ higher age was positively associated with their positive attitudes; as the age increased, the students’ scores were also higher. Attitudes towards older people are not only influenced by cultural values, norms, and social structures, they also have a foundation in gerontological knowledge and experiences. Education addressing cultural awareness of negative ageism should be incorporated into all aspects of education, not just gerontological courses.     

Towards a unified theory of task-specific motivation

This study aims to integrate the current proliferation of motivation theories in a Unified Model of Task-specific Motivation (UMTM). According to this model readiness for action results from an interaction between four relatively independent types of valences that can be classified as affective or cognitive, and positive or negative. Affective valences are expectations about feelings while doing an activity; cognitive valences are expectations about the value of the consequences of an activity. In current theories these types of valences are designated as intrinsic, respectively extrinsic motives. Valences, furthermore, can be positive, but also negative. Positive valences give rise to approach motivation, negative valences to avoidance motivation. Important factors that influence valences are autonomy, feasibility expectation, and relatedness, each of which can be distinguished in a personal and a contextual facet, and subjective norm. In conclusion, some theoretical and practical implications are suggested and some issues for future research are proposed.     

Stereotypes of Aging: Their Effects on the Health of Seniors in North American Society

Seniors are routinely subjected to negative stereotypes regarding their physical and cognitive abilities. The power and prevalence of cultural stereotypes of aging essentially results in a “double-whammy” to seniors. First, they influence the way that seniors are treated by society. Second, cultural stereotypes affect how seniors see themselves. The ramifications here are important, for research suggests that stereotypes influence decisions to engage in cognitive and physical activity, the ability to recover from disease and, ultimately, the length and quality of life. Considering the demographic trends in North America, finding ways to effectively minimize and counteract the most negative stereotypes remains a pressing social concern.     

Draw a Young and an Older Person: Schoolchildren's Images of Older People

The goal of this study was to explore stereotypes of older people as expressed in drawings by a sample of primary school children. Sixty children from fourth to sixth grades (30 boys and 30 girls aged 9 to 12 years) were asked to draw a young man, a young woman, an old man, and an old woman. The drawings were content analyzed. Children in our sample seemed to represent old people in varied or multidimensional ways, indicating, thus, that the image they held about elders was less negative than concluded in similar investigations. In fact, although some drawings had negative content, most pictured a positive—and even friendly—image of old people. Moreover, some of the drawings included both positive and negative traits at the same time. Compared with images of young men and women, those of the elderly seem to be more homogeneous and less complex, since there was more agreement on represented details. Suggestions for future research are proposed.     

PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF STRESS AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE AMONG ANXIOUS OLDER ADULTS

The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the relationship between anxiety and cognitive performance in older adults. We asked 27 older adults, self‐selected on the basis of their concerns about decrements in intellectual functioning, to perform a series of cognitive tasks to assess crystallized (Gc) and fluid (Gf) intellectual abilities. Volunteers also completed questionnaires concerning their beliefs about their task performance specific to each ability, as well as measures of both generalized and intellectual self‐efficacy, everyday cognitive failures, and concerns about illness and aging. Cortisol was measured as an indicator of anxiety and Epstein‐Barr virus levels were assessed to determine nonspecific physiological changes. Results indicated that in the self‐selected “anxious” sample, there was a significant negative correlation between cortisol and self‐efficacy related to the most difficult measure of Gf. The only other significant (negative) correlation was between cortisol and generalized self‐efficacy. As expected, EBV levels were not correlated with any of the performance or self‐efficacy measures taken. Possible explanations of these findings are discussed as they relate to varying levels of performance and concerns about the loss of skills among older adults.     

认知重评和表达抑制对老年人日常情绪的交互作用

采用情绪调节问卷、正性情感和负性情感量表对378名60岁以上的老年人进行了入户调查,以考察两种情绪调节的交互作用对老年人日常情绪体验的影响.结果表明：老年人更习惯采用认知重评的调节方式,正情绪体验较多,负情绪体验较少;认知重评、表达抑制和正情绪存在显著的城乡差异,负情绪差异不显著.分层回归分析表明,教育、健康是影响老年人正情绪体验的两个重要的人口学变量,来源地和收入是影响老年人负情绪体验的两个重要的人口学变量;认知重评正向预测老年人的正情绪,负向预测负性情绪,且认知重评与表达抑制交互效应对老年人正情绪预测显著,对负情绪预测不显著。     

INTERGENERATIONAL CONTACT,ATTITUDES, AND STEREOTYPES OF ADOLESCENTS AND OLDER PEOPLE

Contradictory findings characterize the literature on the efficacy of intergenerational programs that bring children and older persons together for joint activities to promote more positive attitudes and stereotypes. Nor is it clear whether cross-generational attitudes are negative to begin with. The research reported in this paper operationalized the constructs of attitudes and stereotypes by employing ideographic measures based on the attitude model of Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. 1975. Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.  [Google Scholar] and adopted the principles of the contact hypothesis in organizing a cross-age program. Sixty-three middle school adolescents (age 11–13) were randomly assigned to cross-age contact, didactic instruction, or control conditions for a 6-week program. Overall, adolescents and older persons held generally positive attitudes and stereotypes of each other. Relative to the control group, the contact group adolescents’ attitudes toward older people became more positive. There was no change in the didactic group. Following contact, the older people showed more positive attitudes toward younger people and scored higher on a measure of life satisfaction.     

From friendly to rebel grannies and psycho older men: views on aging and old people among Romanian children

ABSTRACT

The article analyses children’s views on aging in the context of social changes in Romania. Data from drawings and interviews conducted with 120 middle school children (75 girls and 45 boys) aged from 11 to 14 years, illustrate how views on aging and old people reflect cultural notions of aging and older individuals. Findings point out a mixture of positive views, imported from an international positive aging discourse and negative views that reflect the Romanian social reality of aging. Gender stereotypes also seem to impact how older people are perceived. Findings are critically discussed in relation to how social realities foster the maintenance and change of cultural views on aging and what kind of educational interventions should be developed.     

Listening to Young People with Physical Disabilities' Experiences of Education

There is a general acceptance that inclusion is morally and ethically the most appropriate form of education. However, more research needs to focus on how best to accommodate and support the educational needs of all students, including those with physical disabilities. Listening to young people with physical disabilities talk about their educational experiences is one way to do this. The aim of this research was to investigate the life stories of a small number of young people with physical disabilities, in particular focusing on their educational experiences. Nine young people, between the ages of 10 and 13 years, who used a manual or powered wheelchair and had the cognitive ability to participate in a series of biographical interviews, were recruited. They collaborated in the writing of their life stories. One theme identified in the analysis of these life stories was their educational experiences. The results highlight that the participants held mixed views about their education. The four who attended a segregated special school were generally positive about their experiences. Participants who had attended a mainstream school talked about positive and negative experiences. Individual and differing perspectives on friendships and the ethos of their school were noted. It is suggested that young people with physical disabilities need to be considered as individuals and that if schools are to achieve the goal of inclusion they need to develop ways to accommodate each individual's needs.     

THE CONDITIONAL AND INTERACTION EFFECTS OF EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS ON THE SELF-REGULATED LEARNING OF COLLEGE STUDENTS: Cognitive and Behavioral Strategies

This study examines the conditional and interaction effects of each of four dimensions of the epistemological beliefs of college students regarding the ability to learn, the speed of learning, the structure of knowledge, and the stability of knowledge on four measures of the cognitive components (elaboration, rehearsal, organization, metacognition) and four measures of the behavioral components (effort regulation, management of time and study environment, peer learning, help seeking) of self-regulated learning strategies. Students with more sophisticated beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning were more likely than their peers to use educationally productive cognitive and behavioral strategies in their learning. Beliefs about one’s ability to learn had the most significant and substantial effects, and the structure of knowledge had the second most significant and substantial effects on students’ use of self-regulated cognitive and behavioral learning strategies. Although a student’s belief about the stability of knowledge by itself had a statistically significant effect on only one learning strategy, this belief served as moderator for six of the 11 statistically significant interaction effects of epistemological beliefs on the use of cognitive and behavioral learning strategies. Implications of these findings for theory, research, policy and practice are examined.     

PUBLIC EDUCATION ABOUT NORMAL FORGETFULNESS AND DEMENTIA: EFFECTIVENESS OF A SYSTEMATICALLY DEVELOPED INFORMATION BROCHURE

Earlier research revealed that many elderly people in The Netherlands are worried about their forgetfulness and are afraid of incipient dementia. Until now, no systematic research has been conducted on the effects of public education about normal forgetfulness and dementia, and therefore an information brochure was developed and evaluated. The main function of this brochure was to reassure people who were unnecessarily worrying about possible dementia. A second function was to motivate people to seek professional help when this seemed advisable. Sixty‐two percent of all respondents (307 of 400) who had been worried about dementia before reading the brochure said that their anxiety decreased or disappeared after reading it; approximately 3% became more worried after reading the brochure. A cognitive test battery was administered to 104 people to determine whether their increased or decreased anxiety was justified. Thirty subjects had low test scores, yet 16 of these subjects had been reassured by the brochure that their forgetfulness was nothing to worry about. This group was characterized as experiencing fewer problems in daily life as a result of their forgetfulness and as having a higher internal locus of control. Seventy‐four subjects performed well on the cognitive tests, yet 18 of them had remained worried about their forgetfulness after reading the brochure. Anxiety for heredity of dementia could be a possible explanation for their persistent concern. Although many people were reassured by the brochure, the results also show that it is important to evaluate information brochures used as intervention instruments—in one third of the present sample, the effects of the brochure were not in accordance with its goal.     

Understanding Seniors' Perceptions and Stereotypes of Aging

Research suggests there is a connection between stereotypes, beliefs, and behavior in older individuals. To explore this link of stereotypes affecting beliefs and beliefs affecting behavior, we interviewed young (age 60 to 75) seniors in an effort to further examine these relationships. Semistructured qualitative interviews were conducted with 20 seniors. Questions focused on the broad themes of aging stereotypes and attitudes towards active living. Responses from the participants indicated the variety of opinions and beliefs seniors hold about the aging process. Intriguing results emerged on the topic of role models. Participants often had someone in their lives who represented what it means to age successfully. Generally, this was an individual older than themselves, active, vigorous, and illustrative of the high quality of life that is possible into a very late age. In addition, these individuals provide a direct contrast to the most negative stereotypes of aging.     

Exercising older people´s brains in Costa Rica: Design principles for using information and communication technologies for cognitive activity and social interaction

This study is part of a design-based research project aimed at designing a learning intervention for enabling Costa Rican older people to use information and communication technologies for cognitive activity and social interaction. Data from relevant literature, a focus group with older adults, and interviews with professionals teaching older adults how to use information and communication technologies were analyzed, in order to create context-sensitive design principles that could guide the design of learning interventions that meet the needs of older learners. The analysis derived context-sensitive design principles that include wider topics that influence the learning process, such as emotions and stereotypes related to learning about and using information and communication technologies, as well as the social support to that learning. The resulting eight design principles argue for respectful learning environments, in-depth comprehension of changes related to aging, time and space to reflect on emotions related to the learning process, and acknowledgment of participants’ individuality.