The influence of schooling on the aspirations of young people with special educational needs

The authors investigate the effect of schooling on the aspirations of young people designated as having mild learning difficulties (MLD) or emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) in the first large‐scale study of its kind in England. Data were collected from parents and their 15/16 year‐old children in the final year of their compulsory schooling in schools. The results indicate on average a positive effect of mainstream schooling on the aspirations of these pupils with the caveat that these benefits are more likely to accrue to pupils whose parents are in higher status occupations. In their conclusions the authors discuss the implications of these results for education policy in the context of local management of schools.     

Towards inclusion — our shared responsibility for disaffected pupils

Finding ways of successfully including pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties in mainstream schools remains a significant challenge as we move towards a more inclusive future. In this article, Fiona MacLeod, Upper School Co-ordinator at Willow Grove School, a special school for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties in Wigan, describes a pilot project designed to promote the reintegration of pupils at transfer to the secondary phase of their education.
She reports on a series of successful placements and discusses the factors that may have helped to sustain the inclusion of some of the pupils in her pilot group. The work described in this article was undertaken as part of the author's MA (special educational needs) programme at Lancaster University.     

What was it like for you?

Abstract

As LEAs and schools develop their inclusive policies and practices, arguments about how to provide the most effective education for pupils with EBD continue. Is it possible to provide high quality education for this group in mainstream schools whilst not adversely affecting the education of the other pupils? What are the consequences of placing the most disturbed pupils in special schools? What do the pupils themselves think? This article draws on findings from 26 interviews with former pupils of an EBD residential school. We were interested in their opinions about the quality of education and care they received at the school and the impact of the placement on their experiences as young adults. Overall, despite some concerns, the former pupils have very positive memories of the school and felt that it had helped them to overcome their learning and behavioural difficulties. The findings have key implications for the development of policy and practice.     

The roles of specialist provision for children with specific speech and language difficulties in England and Wales: a model for inclusion?

Children with specific speech and language difficulties pose a challenge to the education and health systems. In addition to their language difficulties they are also at risk of literacy and social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. The main support for children with more severe difficulties has been enhanced provision in mainstream schools (language units or integrated resources) and special schools. The move to an inclusive education system challenges this tradition. This paper reports the results of interviews with heads of language units/integrated resources and head teachers of special schools (n = 57) as part of a larger study within England and Wales. Their views are considered with reference to criteria for entry to specialist provision, the development of collaborative practice between teachers, teaching assistants and speech and language therapists, and the implications for inclusive education.     

Emotional and behavioural difficulties: the effects of structures,ethos and understandings on provision in Irish post-primary schools

Emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) in mainstream schools in Ireland attract much attention and significant resources, yet little research has been conducted in the Irish context about how this concept is understood by practitioners, what influences that understanding nor how that influences provision in schools. This paper is based on the findings of a study which investigated these issues among principals, special education teachers and guidance counsellors in mainstream post-primary schools, employing questionnaires (n = 36) and semi-structured interviews (n = 10). Several themes are presented regarding how EBD is conceptualised and responded to. The findings of the study suggest definitions of EBD appear to focus mostly on intrapersonal characteristics of students and suggest a resignation in the attitude of practitioners. The effectiveness of behaviour policies is ambiguous due to an imperative to produce written policies in many areas, traditional views of the homogeneity of the school population and a tendency to rely on SEN policy to address EBD issues. Responses to EBD vary considerably. Responsibility for most aspects of the school experience of students presenting with EBD appears to rest predominantly with special education teachers, even where there is access to guidance counsellors. Gender impacts on several of these issues, particularly in the type of language used in schools when discussing EBD.     

Changing attitudes: supporting teachers in effectively including students with emotional and behavioural difficulties in mainstream education

Pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) are often considered the most challenging group to manage within mainstream education. The challenges perceived by teachers may be due, in part, to negative attitudes towards this cohort of pupils, which may exacerbate feelings of inadequacy and impact negatively upon direct interactions with pupils. The current study comprised a combination of implicit (i.e. the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure, IRAP) and explicit (The Opinions Relative to Mainstreaming Scale, ORMS) technologies to assess the attitudes of teachers (N = 25) and teachers in training (N = 20) towards pupils with EBD. When these attitudes proved to be negative (relative to typically developing pupils), the utility of a combined behaviour intervention (BI) and stress-management intervention (SMI), in conjunction with a series of pre and post measures, was examined. The IRAP results for teachers indicated that the SMI enhanced their implicit positivity towards pupils with EBD (EBD PUPIL) to a considerable extent (0.025-0.175), and this was greater than the impact recorded with the BI. The teachers in training showed implicit negativity towards EBD PUPIL (0.13) and this decreased, albeit marginally, at post-BI (0.05) and post-SMI (0.06). Significant differences were recorded in teachers’ general attitudes towards inclusion (p < 0.001) and efficacy (p < 0.008). Significant effects were recorded for teachers in training in relation to their attitudes towards having a child with EBD and having a previously excluded child with EBD in their classrooms (all ps < 0.001). For this latter group, reductions were also recorded in their levels of depression, anxiety and stress (p < 0.001) and there was an increase in their psychological flexibility (p < 0.001). The current results indicate that a range of positive implicit and explicit outcomes was associated with the current BI and SMI package in terms of fostering more effective inclusion of pupils with EBD in mainstream education.     

Attention Deficit Disorder as a factor in the origin of behavioural disturbance in schools

The education of children with behavioural difficulties is under scrutiny from various quarters. The provision of specialised school environments isbeing questioned and, at the same time, there is pressure to minimise the exclusion of disruptive pupils. The study reported in this article lookedat a group of children whose behaviour had prompted placement in a school for emotionally and behaviourally disordered (EBD) pupils. The results showed the overall rate of psychiatric disturbance in the group was 86% and, in particular, that the rate of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) was 70%. These findings suggest that a significant minority of disruptive pupils may have their difficulties compounded by the presence of ADHD, and raises the question of whether specific screening processes should be established for such pupils.     

Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion,perceived adequacy of support and classroom learning environment

Inclusive education has become a cornerstone of many government policies in an increasing number of countries, yet teachers have been found to hold mixed attitudes towards its implementation and usefulness. This article, using English terminology and thinking, aims to extend previous research on the effect of teacher attitudes towards inclusion in classroom learning environments, and to explore perceived adequacy of support, levels of stress, and willingness to include pupils with certain difficulties. Teachers (N = 95) completed questionnaires on attitudes to inclusion, classroom learning environment, support and stress. Pupils (N = 2,514) completed a questionnaire on classroom learning environment only. Teacher attitudes towards including special educational needs pupils in mainstream settings were found to have a significant impact on how they managed their classroom learning environments and how adequately they perceived available support. Teachers with more positive attitudes towards inclusion were reported by their pupils to have classroom environments with greater levels of satisfaction and cohesiveness and lower levels of friction, competitiveness and difficulty than for those with teachers who held less positive attitudes. Teacher attitudes towards inclusion increased with greater perceived adequacy of both internal and external support. Teachers were less willing to include pupils with behavioural difficulties than pupils who were able/gifted or had physical difficulties, irrespective of attitude to inclusion.     

Teachers as Change‐agents in Special Educational Needs: experience in England

Parallel developments in England, Wales and in Scotland have led to the establishment of posts for teachers which enable them to be effective agents of change. Research, publications and initiatives sponsored by national government, local education authorities and voluntary organisations have led to the identification of ways in which educational provision for pupils with special needs can best be made, and to the enunciation of criteria for evaluating such provision. Teacher trainers have responded with innovative approaches to course development; two case studies are offered.     

Emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD): the special educational need justifying exclusion

Students identified with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) present a special case within special educational needs (SEN) and inclusion. EBD is perhaps the only category of SEN that exposes a child to increased risk of exclusion as a function of the very SEN identified as requiring special provision in the first instance. Students identified with EBD share an increased risk for disruptive behaviour. The use of exclusions as a strategy for responding to the special educational needs of these children is contrary to the notion of inclusion. Exclusions, by definition, reduce the ability of schools and associated agencies to work with children identified with SEN. Assuming a positive school effect on the academic and social development, reducing and/or interrupting the continuity of attendance via sanctions such as exclusion may exacerbate negative socio–behavioural developmental patterns, compounding identified risk factors and associated deleterious socio–emotional and cognitive/learning outcomes.     

Breaking the Policy Log-jam: Comparative perspectives on policy formulation and development for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties

Many education systems continue to express concerns about an apparently inexorable increase in the number of pupils displaying difficult behaviour in schools and classrooms. Within the English context the government has tried to address and respond to these concerns by undertaking a variety of initiatives and offering guidance and training to schools on the management of behaviour problems. However, we argue that there is a significant danger that by focusing too narrowly on the needs of those pupils with the most obvious and pressing behavioural difficulties the needs of those with emotional problems are overlooked. We highlight the existence of a 'gap' in much of the policy and guidance in England regarding pupils with emotional problems and offer explanations of why this situation has occurred. In support of this we draw from the extensive literature that already exists and also from a recent large-scale survey undertaken in Greece. This survey of teachers' attitudes provides an important comparative dimension in understanding the dangers that exist for policy makers, professionals and teachers in both 'developing' and developed contexts in the face of increasing disruption in schools. The paper concludes with suggestions for policy makers on how this gap might be avoided.     

RESEARCH SECTION: The self‐esteem of pupils in schools for pupils with social,emotional and behavioural difficulties: myth and reality

The self‐esteem of pupils has long been regarded as a key variable affecting both pupils' learning and behaviour, although the relationship between the two may not be as strong as many in education have always assumed. In this article, Jeremy Swinson, an educational psychologist and honorary lecturer in educational psychology at Liverpool John Moores University, reports the findings from a study in two parts. Firstly, an examination was made of 35 Statements written by officers from seven different education authorities in the north‐west of England for pupils attending two independent schools that specialise in working with pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). It was found that, of the 35 Statements examined, 34 included self‐esteem as one area of special need. The second phase of the study examined the self‐esteem of 60 pupils in four specialist schools for pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. The results showed that the average scores for self‐esteem for both the primary and secondary sample were very similar to the scores obtained by previous researchers in mainstream schools. However, it was apparent that more pupils than expected appeared to have either very low or very high self‐esteem. In terms of locus of control, it was found that a large number of secondary pupils had a high score although this was not found to be the case for the primary pupils in the sample. Jeremy Swinson discusses these results and presents his analysis of their implications for teachers, educational psychologists and education officers.     

Virtual professionalism and the challenge for Irish educators

Abstract

This paper attempts to assess policy making for special educational needs in Northern Ireland (NI) from the reform in 1996 of procedures for the identification of pupils with disabilities to current proposals for the reform of procedures for the selection of pupils for secondary education. The reports of Dyson (DENI, 1998b) and Bums (DENI, 2001a), focussing respectively and exclusively upon provisions for disabilities and abilities, are proposed as defining events in a period during which significant advances towards a more inclusive education provision coincided with disparate and fragmented policies for special educational needs. Drawing upon policy documents, regional reports and statistical evidence, the paper attempts to assess progress towards the inclusion for pupils with special educational needs in NI and to gauge government intentions to encourage greater inclusion for such pupils.     

Advocacy leadership and the deprofessionalising of the special educational needs co-ordinator role

The UK government is proposing to replace M-level national award for special educational needs co-ordination training, mandated for SENCos in England, with an unaccredited national professional qualification. Such downgrading of their qualification level is intended to significantly increase the number of qualified SENCos; however, this is likely to reduce SENCos' capacity to exercise ‘advocacy leadership’ in support of students at risk of marginalization and social exclusion. We reject a neoliberal political discourse of continual improvement that neglects the need for critical literacy and research-informed inclusive practice on the part of SENCos, and suggest that endemic exclusionary practices in English schools are more likely to go unchallenged. The move towards nonaccredited SENCo status risks their deprofessionalisation, and this proposal is linked to an academisation agenda and efforts to normalize a trichotomised education system (comprising mainstream, ‘special’ and ‘alternative’ provision) by presenting such changes as an improvement.     

Including Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties Pupils in a Mainstream Comprehensive: A study of the behaviour of pupils and classes

A group of twelve pupils from an emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) school were transferred to a mainstream comprehensive school. They were supported by a specialist teacher and two Educational Support Assistants. The behaviour of the pupils was monitored. The behaviour of the EBD pupils was found to be very similar to that of the other pupils in the school. Only two of the EBD boys showed behaviour significantly worse than their peers. On the whole, the EBD pupils behaved extremely well in well-run classes, but their behaviour deteriorated in less well-organised lessons. Their behaviour tended to decline over the course of the school day, and the behaviour of all the pupils in the school was shown to be worse for the last period of the day. The implications of this research on the whole concept of EBD is discussed, as is the role, attitudes and practice of both teachers and educational psychologists.     

Moving towards inclusive education in Cyprus?

Within the last decade, the government of Cyprus has encouraged and supported the education of children assessed as having special needs into the mainstream educational system. With the existing arrangements, however, many pupils who experience difficulties within schools (and many of those are pupils who have been integrated from special schools) are marginalized or even excluded from teaching. This paper looks at the existing arrangements of special education in Cyprus by analysing local practice to identify barriers to inclusion, to consider ways of improving schools and classrooms in relation to policy‐making, and to see how to go forward towards inclusive education. Using four stories from the author’s involvement with one school, and reflecting on them, the author presents what was seen as barriers to providing more inclusive education.     

Some historical perspectives in the development of special education in Ghana

This paper traces the development of special education in Ghana, with a particular focus on the education of people with learning difficulties. The influence of the British perspective is recognized as having played a critical role in its initial development; but while trends are increasingly shifting towards inclusive practices, the institutionalization of people with learning difficulties and others with disabilities remains an entrenched practice. Evidence of official government rhetoric towards inclusive practices is noted, but prevailing traditional structures in special education service delivery and administration prevent its practical reality, especially for many pupils with learning difficulties.     

Putting Pupils’ Needs First

Paul Cooper, Department of Educational Studies, Oxford University, and Professor Graham Upton, School of Education, Birmingham University, discuss recent developments in the education of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. The aim is to draw attention to the value of consultative and cooperative approaches to these problems and the tension between these approaches and the contrary pressures created by educational policy in England and Wales. They argue that the needs of pupils who present emotional and behavioural difficulties are in danger of being neglected, as they are squeezed between confusions and compromises which abound as a result of recent policy changes and divergent attitudes towards their needs.     

The role of special schools for children with profound and multiple learning difficulties: is segregation always best?

The education of young people with profound and multiple learning difficulties continues to raise challenges and controversies. In this article, Ben Simmons, an ESRC funded PhD student and research assistant, and Phil Bayliss, programme director for the masters degree in special education and disability, both based in the School of Education and Lifelong Learning at the University of Exeter, describe their research into provision for pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties in a special school in the south west of England. Their work, based in an interpretivist, qualitative approach, set out to illuminate issues relating to the inclusion of pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties. The findings presented here suggest that the school, in spite of its strong reputation, struggled significantly to provide appropriate learning experiences for pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties. Ben Simmons and Phil Bayliss discuss the need for improved staff development opportunities focused on enhancing current levels of knowledge and skills. They conclude by calling for a reappraisal of the established view that special schools necessarily provide the best learning environment for pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties.