Quelques aspects didactiques du développement de la pensée des enfants dans les mathématiques et la physique

Sans résuméConférence tenue au Congrès sur l'Intégration des enseignements scientifiques, à Varna, 11–19 septembre 1968.     

Modernisation et emploi du temps dans les écoles primaires de la Ville du Mexique, 1885–1911

The purpose of this article is to examine the way in which the academic schedule was organized in the primary schools of Mexico City, and how the life of the children was regulated by time schedules, disciplines, punishments and school calendars. Within this sense, the academic temporality expressed in schedules and calendars signified a cultural and educational discussion, which in turn reflected the aspirations and valuations of an era. The importance acquired by elementary education at the end of the nineteenth century was the result of economic and cultural changes that affected Mexico and that intended to modernize both the state and institutions instrumental in the country's progress, such as the educational institutions. The educated elite of the Porfirio Diaz regime, influenced by European ideas and societal changes, provided impetus to the transformation of the spaces and activities of children within schools. The school schedule was widely assessed by both the politicians and the educators of the Porfiriato era. They judged it to be the appropriate means by which to prepare the children under new schemes of thought and behavior, for which they needed to provide inputs to modern school schedules, that is to say: uniforms, secularization and hygiene, which catches up with the old temporality marked by the ecclesiastical influence and which emphasized mechanical, repetitive and linear schemes. Thenceforth, the educational authorities concentrated their efforts on the creation of a type of school discipline and order. A population of children who assume ethics of work, punctuality, respect and efficiency was exactly the changing society based on industrialization and modernization that was needed.     

Didactisme et méthode didactique en France: la rationalité de la méthode et l'influence allemande,au début du XXe siècle

The generic term “didactic” has had for a long time in France the rather depreciatory meaning of a formal, expositing method putting the authority of the teacher above active participation of the pupil. Far before the arrival of disciplinary didactics which took place in the 1970s and which acknowledged in France, the German meaning of rational method applied to teaching, there was as early as the beginning of the XXth century a first wave of German Swiss and Belgian influences which enable that underestimated term to regain a rational and reflexive meaning.     

Education et société dans la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle: de Vallange et ses projets de réforme complète de l'éducation 1710–1740

At the beginning of the 18th century, M. de Vallange proposed a wide‐ranging programme to reform education in France. He intended to introduce teaching methods based on John Locke's works and to create a full‐scale system of new educational institutions. The royal institutions called “collèges” were to be abolished and a secular body of academics in charge of the new ones was to be appointed. The new curriculum proposed by M. de Vallange responded better than the former to the requirements of society, the children's capacity for work, and the new intellectual attainments brought about by the scientific progress of the 17th century.

This project formed part of a larger educational trend that, between 1710 and 1740, brought the notion of education closer to the concept of society.     

Les enseignants du second degré français et leur conception sur les causes et la fatalité de la réussite (ou de l'échec) scolaire

Can school increase its productivity? Which is the attitude of teachers to this issue? INRP and University of Paris 5 made conducted survey on the issue, by questionnaire. Among more than 2000 answers to the questionnaire, a sample of 988 has been extracted to accurately represent the heterogeneous spectrum of French secondary school teachers. Individual qualities are considered essential spectrum among the conditions for success. The majority of teachers does not expect school to be able to counterbalance individual differences. Implications of these attitudes for teacher training are then discussed.     

Nécessité de promouvoir la méthode de suggestion dans l＇enseignement

Ｎéｃｅｓｓｉｔé ｄｅ ｐｒｏｍｏｕｖｏｉｒ ｌａ ｍéｔｈｏｄｅ ｄｅｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｉｏｎｄａｎｓｌ＇ｅｎｓｅｉｇｎｅｍｅｎｔＧｕｏＱｕａｎ－ｚｈｏｎｇＤｅｐｕｉｓｌｅｓ８０，ｊｅｍｅｌｉｖｒｅａｕｔｒａｖａｉｌｄ＇ｅｎｓｅｉｇｎａｎｔｄｕｆｒ?..     

Contextualiser la place du français et du malgache dans le système éducatif du Madagascar: une perspective historique

Abstract

Avant la colonisation de Madagascar par la France en 1896, la plupart des enfants malgaches scolarisés avaient fréquenté des écoles dirigées par des missions protestantes. La langue d’enseignement était la langue malgache, une langue écrite, développée avec l’aide de missionnaires britanniques à partir de 1820. Elle était celle du groupe clanico-politique dominant. La colonisation imposa la langue française. Le pouvoir colonial avait considéré la langue comme un instrument important dans la politique d’assimilation et la création d’élites qui pourraient servir son projet. Mais l’administration coloniale dans les pays colonisés influençait fortement l’exécution de la politique éducative. Madagascar est d’ailleurs un cas pertinent dans ce sens à cause de l’existence et le statut de la langue écrite Malgache. La politique assimilatrice dominante n’a pas empêché des désaccords au sein de l’administration coloniale sur la place de la langue malgache dans l’éducation. L’argument majeur était que cette langue renforcera le groupe ethnique Merina et alimentera davantage le nationalisme malgache au détriment de l’assimilation. Depuis l’Indépendance en 1960, la politique linguistique a évolué selon les régimes politiques. Les perspectives théoriques dans le domaine de la “literacy” (des aptitudes à lire et à écrire vu comme une pratique sociale) décrivent celle-ci comme une pratique sociale et un instrument de pouvoir. Sa diffusion générale a été associée avec un développement démocratique, mais aussi avec l’oppression. L’article montre comment la politique des langues d’enseignement à Madagascar s’est basée sur des arguments politique et pédagogique dans des contextes différents.     

L'ecole et la communauté dans l'éducation pour la compréhension internationale Bruxelles, 7.–20. Juli 1963

Ohne Zusammenfassung

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L'ecole et la communauté dans l'éducation pour la compréhension internationale Bruxelles, 7.–20. Juli 1963

     

Les directeurs d’écoles ou l’exercice de l’autorité dans les établissements scolaires de Berlin-Est dans les années 1950

A partir d’un matériau croisant des sources officielles (lois, règlements, directives) et des sources tirées de la pratique scolaire locale (chroniques, protocoles des réunions pédagogiques d’établissements scolaires), l’article souhaite étudier concrètement la “micro-physique du pouvoir” socialiste dans les écoles de Berlin-Est au début des années 1950. On cherche à comprendre comment l’autorité socialiste s’incarne et s’exerce sur le terrain au quotidien dans la construction d’une nouvelle société au moyen de la formation d’un homme nouveau. En partant de la figure du directeur d’école comme lieu d’observation du travail pour imposer le communisme au quotidien, l’ambition est d’étudier l’exercice de la domination politique dans ses relations et ses interactions avec deux acteurs essentiels de l’institution scolaire que sont les enseignants et les élèves. Dans la mesure où le pouvoir socialiste se veut immanent, il n’est pas concentré uniquement au sein des structures du pouvoir central et son champ d’action s’exerce donc dans des “foyers locaux” où il transite par des individus qui doivent officiellement l’incarner au quotidien. Loin de considérer uniquement l’école comme une simple courroie de transmission d’un régime totalitaire qui imposerait d’en haut un système de règles, nous cherchons à travers la figure du directeur à analyser l’interaction entre Etat et société au “ras du sol”: comment exerce-t-on la fonction de directeur d’école au début des années 1950 à Berlin-Est? Dans quelle mesure l’analyse des modalités d’exercice de cette autorité éducative et politique permet-elle de mettre en évidence et d’expliciter un certain nombre de logiques politiques, culturelles et sociales macro-historiques?     

L’encadrement pédagogique et disciplinaire dans les collèges d’humanités en France du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle

Every day, both the boarders and day‐pupils of the collèges d’humanités spent twice or three times as much time in breaks, study periods and meals as in class. However, although these hours occupied a major place in the lives of these adolescents, they have been much less studied than the teaching dispensed by the teacher, which is considered to be the core of the pedagogic activity. This article therefore endeavours to analyse the way in which pupils were supervised and to determine their out‐of‐class activities. In the most ancient forms of the collège d’humanités, the supervision of pupils outside class corresponded neither to specific personnel nor to specific places. In the early sixteenth century, this work was often undertaken by the régents d’humanités (teachers) themselves, by other pupils (in an activity resembling a form of tutoring), or by a preceptor or tutor. The Jesuits seem to have been the inventors of a new actor in the world of education, the dormitory master or préfet de chambre (praefectus cubiculi), who accompanied the pupils throughout the day and ensured that they worked during the study periods. As early as 1565, in the Parisian Clermont college, the boarders were thus organised into groups of 15 or 20 per dormitory under the authority of a Jesuit. The recourse to these masters spread not only among the Jesuits but also to the Oratorians; to the former medieval colleges which were vigorous enough to modernise; or to the newly founded colleges (as the Mazarin college which opened in Paris in 1688). The pupils who did not live in the colleges (the majority) enrolled in the private boarding establishments near the colleges. These boarding establishments did not merely accommodate the boarders but also catered for genuine non‐residents, who lived with their families and had recourse to them solely for the services of lesson repetition. These masters were in every case defined by their double role of permanent overseers of the boarders and pedagogues in charge of the study periods. They most closely shared the lives of the pupils. They therefore represented a key figure in the years of learning of these young people. This omnipresence covered a double necessity: the educational care of the children, assuming the role of a parental substitute, and the continuous supervision of a community of male adolescents aged from 10 to 20. The fear of misbehaviour, disorder and fighting as well as the attention paid to clothing or appearance appeared constantly in the instructions given to the supervising tutors. Above all, their pedagogic role consisted in ensuring that the personal work given by the teacher was actually done by the pupils. However, they were sometimes entrusted with certain aspects of learning, such as the preparation of text commentaries or the teaching of subjects which were not dealt with in class (history, geography or heraldry). In their organisation, the study periods resembled what happened in class more and more. This article therefore highlights the systematic presence of a means of supervising college pupils outside class and the role played by the supervising tutors in the education of these young people. It also demonstrates the central nature of this supervision in classical education. Contrary to the adult viewpoint (expressed by historians or contemporary witnesses), which is more preoccupied with educational theories than practical implementation, this importance is widely recognised in the memoirs which give the pupil’s point of view and invite us to turn our entire attention to this aspect of the lives of the college pupils.     

Réflexions sur la construction d’un champ disciplinaire: les mathématiques dans l’institution jésuite à la Renaissance

The aim of the paper is to provide an analysis of the emergence of mathematics as a scholarly discipline, through the study of the most important agent of education, in the early modern Catholic world: the Society of Jesus. The study of the various sources offered by the institution produces a confrontation between the elaboration of a normative text and local practices, and brings to light the different components of such a construction: a social and political context, which allows the expression of local demands for mathematics; a precise intellectual context, within which a new epistemology of science is developing (the importance is noted of Clavius, the first teacher of mathematics at the Collegio Romano, who defended the new epistemology);and the constitution of a group of professors able to teach it. Through the remarkable documentation left by the Jesuit institution, the enquiry can be developed at different scales (from the local to the universal) and permitting consideration of the “scientific revolution” in terms of both a social and an intellectual process.     

La Réunion d'experts sur la présentation des cultures d'Asie dans les manuels et le matériel d'enseignement des pays occidentaux,Paris, mai 1956

Sans résumé     

Proportionnalité et Pourcentage Chez des Apprentis Vendeurs. Réflexion sur la Relation Mathématiques / Réalité dans une Formation 'en Alternance'

This article presents the results of a research study conducted with apprentices in order to examine the double hypothesis that vocational training incorporating work placement gives the opportunity to construct authentic situations out of the everyday practices of students and that these situations allow students to improve their understanding of mathematical problems. After analysis of workplace situations had shown that the only mathematical concept used by apprentices was that of proportionality applied to percentage calculations, we first analysed the way in which students at several levels handled this idea of percentage. We then devised an experimental framework in order to help the apprentices to transfer their knowledge. RéSUMé: Cet article présente les résultats d'une recherche menée avec des apprentis vendeurs afin de vérifier la double hypothèse qu'un enseignement professionnel en alternance donne l'opportunité de construire des situations authentiques, à partir des pratiques quotidiennes des élèves et que ces situations permettent aux élèves d'améliorer leur compréhension des problèmes mathématiques. L'analyse des situations de travail ayant montré que le seul concept mathématique dont les apprentis ont l'usage est le concept de proportionnalité appliqué aux calculs de pourcentage, nous avons d'abord analysé le comportement d'élèves de plusieurs niveaux face à cette notion de pourcentage. Nous avons ensuite mis en place un dispositif expérimental afin d'aider les apprentis à transférer leurs connaissances. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

La diffusion de la géographie dans l’enseignement français (fin XIXe siècle,début XXe) : force du mouvement et variété des projets

From the 1860s to the beginning of the twentieth century, the rise of academic geography in industrialized countries resulted from the need to produce geography teachers. The mushrooming of school geography, in turn, reflected a complex mixture of pedagogic thought, of a modernization trend, of nationalism and of imperialism. In France, this context caused the emergence of contrasting models describing the scientific requirements of school geography, from loose relations between scientific and pedagogical spheres to the structural link joining the republican university to the various school levels. This article details the strategy through which a group of scholars of the École normale supérieure led by P. Vidal de la Blache succeeded in creating a cognitive space for a new scientific discipline. It describes briefly its progressive introduction in elementary and in classical secondary teaching and how several older elements remained in programmes and in the school curriculum.     

Enfants autochtones et apprentissage: la corporalité comme langage en Amérique du Sud tropicale

In this article on the cultural context of children's learning processes among the indigenous peoples of tropical South America, the author aims to show how in these cultures the human body offers a language and a mechanism central to the process of production, elaboraton and transmission of knowledge, skills and emotions. She works from the assumption that the construction of a child's identity is a process which takes place in the body, creating a synthesis of social, cosmological, psychological, emotional and cognitive meanings. In constructing an ethnography of the Akwe~-Xavante and Akwe~-Xerente peoples of central Brazil, the author refers to recent anthropological debates on the cosmology and outlook of the indigenous peoples of this region, as well as to the literature of the new discipline known as "anthropology of the child".     

Enfants autochtones et apprentissage: la corporalité comme langage en Amérique du Sud tropicale

In this article on the cultural context of children's learning processes among the indigenous peoples of tropical South America, the author aims to show how in these cultures the human body offers a language and a mechanism central to the process of production, elaboraton and transmission of knowledge, skills and emotions. She works from the assumption that the construction of a child's identity is a process which takes place in the body, creating a synthesis of social, cosmological, psychological, emotional and cognitive meanings. In constructing an ethnography of the Akwe~-Xavante and Akwe~-Xerente peoples of central Brazil, the author refers to recent anthropological debates on the cosmology and outlook of the indigenous peoples of this region, as well as to the literature of the new discipline known as "anthropology of the child".     

La perception de quelques difficultés en mathématiques par les professeurs en classe de troisième dans l'enseignement secondaire au sénégal

Sans résumé     

L’héritage de la méthode suédoise d’éducation physique en France: les conflits de méthode au sein de l’Ecole normale de gymnastique et d’escrime de Joinville au début du XXème siècle

The Swedish physical education method has had a singular destiny in France. Originally created by the Swedish Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839), it first spread in France thanks to German doctors. From 1902, the Swedish method became the official method of the Ecole normale de gymnastique et d’escrime de Joinville. It caused serious dissension first within the army, between Georges Hébert, a naval officer attempting to spread his own method called ‘Méthode naturelle’, and Emile Coste, a major at Joinville school who was a resolute supporter of Ling’s method; then within Joinville school, where, from 1905, Georges Demeny, renowned physiologist, tried to impose his French method ‘Eclectique’. The three protagonists would use arguments focused on the rationality of the Swedish method to legitimize or criticize it. But this explicit stake based on the validity of the link between a scientific culture – anatomy and physiology – and a physical education method does not mask the implicit stake of real power.