Altering the Modality of Instructions to Facilitate Imagination: Interactions between the Modality and Imagination Effects

Under some conditions, learning is improved by using a dual mode presentation involving for example, visual diagrams and auditory, rather than written text (modality effect). Under other conditions, learning is improved by asking learners to imagine rather than study instructional material (imagination effect). Both effects have been explained using cognitive load theory. This paper investigates interactions between the modality and imagination effects. It was hypothesized that the imagination effect would be facilitated when accompanied by audio/visual instructions compared to visual only instructions. Experiment 1 provided evidence to suggest that for the materials used, audio/visual instructions were required to obtain an imagination effect. Experiment 2 through verbal protocols aimed to investigate the cognitive mechanisms required when studying and imagining and found that learners who studied tended to engage in search while learners who imagined focused on entities and relations that needed to be learned. in final form: 8 December 2005     

Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Load Theory, Four-Component Instructional Design, and Self-Directed Learning

This article explores the opportunities to apply cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design to self-directed learning. Learning tasks are defined as containing three elements: learners must (a) perform the tasks, (b) assess their task performance, and (c) select future tasks for improving their performance. Principles to manage intrinsic and extraneous load for performing learning tasks, such as simple-to-complex ordering and fading-guidance strategies, are also applicable to assessing performance and selecting tasks. Moreover, principles to increase germane load, such as high variability and self-explanation prompts, are also applicable to assessment and selection. It is concluded that cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design provide a solid basis for a research program on self-directed learning.     

Designing Instruction for the Context of Online Learning

Many individuals are creating instruction that will be used for online learning. This paper reviews four generic categories of instructional principles: Instructional Design (pedagogical issues), Subject Matter (content issues), Language (semantic and syntactic issues), and Presentation (physical issues), that should be used as guidelines when designing instructional materials. Nine current considerations for the context of online learning are drawn from the literature and experience and we show how each relates to these existing guidelines. We conclude the four generic categories of instructional principles apply equally to the design of instruction for the context of online learning and most issues that people talk about when designing online instruction are simply elaborations of these existing principles. A job aid is provided to help designers systematically consider essential principles when designing online instruction.     

Embellishing Problem-Solving Examples with Deep Structure Information Facilitates Transfer

Appreciation of problem structure is critical to successful learning. Two experiments investigated effective ways of communicating problem structure in a computer-based learning environment and tested whether verbal instruction is necessary to specify solution steps, when deep structure is already embellished by instructional examples. Participants learned to solve algebra-like problems and then solved transfer problems that required adjustment of learned procedures. Experiment 1 demonstrated that verbal instruction helped learning by reducing learners' floundering, but its positive effect disappeared in the transfer. More importantly, students transferred better when they studied with examples that emphasized problem structure rather than solution procedure. Experiment 2 showed that verbal instruction was not necessarily more effective than nonverbal scaffolding to convey problem structure. Final understanding was determined by transparency of problem structure regardless of presence of verbal instruction. However, verbal instruction had a positive impact on learners by having them persist through the task, and optimal instructional choices were likely to differ depending on populations of learners.     

Learning from equations or words

A series of four experiments was designed to study the cognitive load consequences of learning from equations, as compared to words. Cognitive load theory suggests that some instructional procedures require learners to engage in cognitive activities solely because of the manner in which information is presented rather than because of intrinsic characteristics of the material. As a consequence, a heavy extraneous cognitive load that interferes with learning may be imposed. It is suggested that in studying equations with unfamiliar notations, a heavy extraneous cognitive load is generated because mental integration of notations and meanings is required. The results of Experiment 1 supported this suggestion. Experiment 2 found that when an equation format involves simple equations and familiar notations, it is more effective than an equivalent verbal format which requires substantial reading. Experiment 3 showed that when the use of notations becomes automated after extended practice and thus reduces the extraneous cognitive load required to mentally integrate notations and meanings, an equation format can be more effective than a verbal format. Experiment 4 indicated that supplementing a concise equation format with extensive verbal information does not assist learning, because processing the extensive verbal information induces a heavy cognitive load which creates redundancy effects. It was concluded that the efficacy of equations or words may depend, in part, on their cognitive load consequences.     

Encoding tactics in the retention of maps

Two experiments were designed to determine which of two encoding tactics learners use to remember maps and whether one or the other differentially preserves locational memory for mapped features. Experiment 1 subjects were presented a map with either low or high spatial distinction, with half of the subjects receiving general instruction to cluster the map's features. Results showed that the subjects have an apparent propensity to encode mapped features using a semantically based encoding tactic; yet the visuospatial properties of a map influence the employment of this tactic. In Experiment 2, the encoding instructions were made more specific by informing subjects to encode mapped features either conceptually or spatially or simply to study the map. Half the subjects in each group recalled mapped features either by listing them or by reconstructing the entire map. Results showed that a well-defined set to employ specific mechanisms of encoding differentially affects retention, but memory for location is preserved by an encoding tactic that is spatially based. Findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical and instructional implications.     

Example-based learning: The benefits of prompting organization before providing examples

Example-based learning often follows a design in which learners first receive instructional explanations that communicate new principles and concepts and second examples thereof. In this setting, using the knowledge components of the instructional explanations to explain the examples (i.e., generating principle-based self-explanations) is considered to be a highly important learning process. However, a potential suboptimality of this learning process is that it scarcely requires learners to organize the content of the instructional explanations into coherent mental representations. Thus, in two experiments we investigated whether prompting learners to organize the content of the instructional explanations before providing them with the examples (and self-explanation prompts) enhances the effectiveness of example-based learning. We consistently found that organization prompts fostered learning regardless of whether the learners also received self-explanation prompts. Hence, in example-based learning, learners should be prompted to not only generate principle-based self-explanations but also to organize the content of the instructional explanations.     

Introverts,Extroverts, and Achievement in a Distance Learning Environment

Although difficulties that characterize distance learning (DL) clearly have differential effects on different learners, links between barrier research and individual differences remain relatively unexplored. This study examined the relationship between cognitive style, based on Jung's (1971) theory, and achievement levels among 77 university students in a videoconference-based learning environment. Clarifying this relationship enables educators to identify in advance students who may require additional instructional support in a DL context. Understanding student-related variables that affect learning also enables faculty to adapt instructions to meet the diverse needs of different students instead of adopting a “one-size-fits-all” approach to designing DL environments.     

有效纠错教学的基本内涵与实施

有效纠错教学是以学生的学习错误为教学起点,为引导学生发现错误及其原因并能自主纠正错误,从而形成对知识、技能的正确理解,形成良好的纠错经历和感悟,而实施的具有最优速度、效益和效率的教学活动。依据有效教学理论,借鉴医生的诊疗流程,提出了有效纠错的基本原则和实施框架。引导教师准确而敏捷地识别错误、全面而深刻地分析错因、匹配最佳纠错方式、制定弹性纠错方案、动态调整纠错方案,是实施有效纠错教学的基本策略。     

论学习动机和对外汉语听力教材的编写

根据Dorneyi等多位学者对于第二语言学习者的学习动机的阐述以及学习动机在具体的第二语言学习活动中的表现,并根据对在华留学生学习目的和其对所学内容的需求等的调查,提出了对外汉语听力教材编写应在适应学生的学习需求前提下,依照实际可用、难易相成、明确目的、新鲜有趣及题材多样的原则选择教材内容;并且在遵循技法和保护学生学习动机的情况下,安排自主型、测验型、互动型和团队合作型练习。     

听力自主学习中材料的选择、设计探讨

个性化自主学习的强调与听力自主学习系统在高校中的应用面临着如何选择适合学习者的听力材料的问题。基于输入假设、情感过滤假设、图式理论提出了按学习者实际听力水平分级分类的材料选择与设计的方法以提高学习者听力水平和听力自主学习能力。     

Example-Based Learning in Heuristic Domains: A Cognitive Load Theory Account

One classical instructional effect of cognitive load theory (CLT) is the worked-example effect. Although the vast majority of studies have focused on well-structured and algorithmic sub-domains of mathematics or physics, more recent studies have also analyzed learning with examples from complex domains in which only heuristic solution strategies can be taught (e.g., troubleshooting, mathematical proving). Is learning by such examples also effective, and do the same instructional design principles apply? We discuss the main findings of an own research program and of related studies that addressed such questions. We found that CLT’s basic design principles also hold true for heuristic domains: Reduce extraneous load by employing examples, maximize germane load by fostering self-explanations, prevent cognitive overload by pretraining in the case of difficult learning materials, and by focusing attention on the most relevant aspects. Other typical CLT assumptions (e.g., better provide information for novice learners) were not confirmed in its generality. The present findings extend the applicability of CLT but also identify some potentially too simplistic assumptions.     

Teaching Instructional Design: An Action Learning Approach

Many theorists and practitioners are calling for more authentically based teaching approaches in the preparation of instructional designers and performance technologists to address the complexity of the field's practice. Although many innovative methods have been incorporated into the study of instructional design and development and human performance technology, including case studies and applied experiences with collaborative groups, among others, the majority of teaching approaches are limited to the time constraints and format of the traditional university classroom setting. This paper discusses an alternative teaching approach that incorporates action learning principles along with authentic project‐based methods into the full‐time study of instructional design. The paper reviews action learning principles and highlights the commonalties between these principles and the application of the practice and teaching of the instructional design process in an authentic manner. Finally, the implementation of action learning principles within a graduate program in instructional technology is described. Action learning principles may be applied to many content areas; however, the highly complementary nature of this specific methodology to the teaching and practice of instructional design may have the potential to improve greatly our preparation of professionals in the complex work environments characteristic of this and related disciplines. As a valuable component of performance technology skills, training in instructional design methods based on an action learning approach may have broad implications for both the preparation of instructional designers and performance technologists.     

Learning mathematics from worked-out examples: Analyzing and fostering self-explanations

Recent research has shown that learning from worked-out examples is of major importance for initial skill acquisition in well-structured domains such as mathematics. However, only those learners who actively process the presented examples profit noticeably from this learning mode. Specifically, the learning outcomes depend on how well the learners explain the solution steps presented in the examples to themselves (‘self-explanation effect”). In a series of studies on learning mathematics from examples, learners’ spontaneous self-explanations and instructional means used to encourage self-explanations were investigated. In this research, the following main findings were obtained. Most learners were rather passive with respect to their spontaneous self-explanations. Among the active and successful learners, two subgroups employing different self-explanation styles could be identified. With regard to the instructional means used to induce effective example processing, it turned out that to employ “learning by teaching” in order to stimulate explanation activities was of very limited use. Attempts to directly train for or elicit certain types of self-explanations were more successful. However, even in the latter case, self-explanations had inherent deficits (e.g., proneness to errors). Thus, we sought to design learning arrangements that try to integrate self-explanations with well-timed and well-adapted instructional explanations (e.g., from tutors) in order to enhance students’ problem-solving skills.     

Learner vs. System Control in Using Online Support for Simulation-based Discovery Learning

Learning in discovery environments, such as simulations, requires both planning and complex inference processing from learners. Studies evaluating simulations learning have indicated that, without added instructional support, simulation learning knowledge gains are disappointing and/or unclear. With regard to the problems that learners could encounter, we feel, on the one hand, that learners should be supported in their discovery processes whenever possible. On the other hand, we believe that learners' own responsibility in the learning process should be emphasised. The discovery environment in the present study is called CIRCUIT, in which the behaviour of current and voltage sources in electrical circuits is simulated. CIRCUIT includes three main types of instructional support: model progression, assignments, and explanations. Two experimental conditions were created. Although these conditions were similar with respect to the support, they differed with respect to the amount of freedom given to the subjects. That is, the first group of subjects was free to choose their own sequence exploring the simulation environment. In the second group, the sequence was largely controlled by the environment. In determining the instructional value of the interaction, special attention is paid to acquiring intuitive knowledge as compared to definitional knowledge. The evaluation followed a pretest-posttest design. Results showed no gain in definitional knowledge but a gain in intuitive knowledge. No major differences between the experimental groups were detected in the posttest results or in the interaction processes, a cognitive load measure, and the subjective ratings. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of processing instructions on the usefulness of a graphic organizer and structural cueing in text

This study assessed two adjuncts to instructional text, structural cueing and graphic organizer processing instructions. Previous research has shown that cueing is a useful indicator of textual structure and that graphic organizers can be enhanced by providing learners with an indication of how they can be used. Results indicated the presence of a three-way interaction among reading ability groups, structural cueing and graphic organizer processing instructions. Analysis of this interaction revealed that high level readers were the only subjects who profited from processing instructions, and only in the presence of cueing. Middle level readers benefited from cueing in both conditions of processing instructions while low level readers were able to take advantage of cueing only in the absence of processing instructions. The results are interpreted in light of previous graphic organizer research.     

英语主语误用与中式英语

英语与汉语分属两个不同的语系。英语学习者在学习英语的过程中将本族的语言习惯和思维定势移植到英语学习中,形成母语负迁移。学生中式英语的根源即在于此。主语误用是造成中式英语的原因之一,具体表现为三种主语误用现象,即混淆主题与主语、主语缺失和主语使用不当。     

对中国英语学习者在议论文写作中选词错误的研究——基于语料库的调查

研究关注中国英语学习者在英语议论文写作中的选词错误情况,研究者从“北京语言大学中国学生英语笔语语料库”中选取了两组不同水平学习者的语料进行比较调查。参考James（1998）对词汇错误的分类,研究者把语料中的选词错误分为7类：误用形近词、误用固定搭配、从母语直译、凭空造词、误用近义词、错误理解词的指示义和具体语境选词不当。通过分析数据,研究者发现了两组不同水平学习者在选词错误方面的一些特点和差异,并且有针对性地对英语词汇教学和写作教学提出了一些建议。     

Simulation-Based Evaluation of Learning Sequences for Instructional Technologies

Instructional technologies critically depend on systematic design and learning hierarchies are a commonly advocated tool for designing instructional sequences. But hierarchies routinely allow numerous sequences and choosing an optimal sequence remains an unsolved problem. This study explores a simulation-based approach to modeling learning hierarchies and the sequencing problem with a special focus on mastery learning over time. Computer simulations of eight hierarchies from the literature address two general questions about hierarchies and sequences: Do different valid instructional sequences for a given hierarchy lead to significant differences in simulated learning outcomes?, and How do hierarchy structures and student ability influence learning? Two findings emerge from the simulations: equally valid instructional sequences can produce widely divergent learning outcomes, and student ability can interact with sequence and hierarchy structure to disadvantage lower-ability learners. The paper concludes with observations on the role of simulations in the analysis and validation of instructional design and large-scale instructional systems.