Generalizability of Change Scores on the Body Awareness Scale

The Body Awareness Scale (BAS) is an as-yet unpublished measure of somatic arousal that is still in the process of being validated. The purpose of this study was to examine the dependability of changes in BAS scores from baseline to precompetition. Twenty-two male collegiate athletes completed the BAS on 2 separate occasions: baseline and precompetition. Generalizability theory was used to examine the score consistency or dependability of observed baseline scores, observed precompetition scores, and observed baseline to precompetition change scores on the BAS. Results indicated that the BAS had a relatively low generalizability at baseline for these athletes. However, the precompetition scores and the change scores both demonstrated relatively high levels of generalizability. It was concluded that the BAS in its present 14-item form had a high enough generalizability coefficient to support its intended uses.     

The CSGU: a measure of controllability, stability, globality, and universality attributions

This article reports initial evidence of construct validity for a four-factor measure of attributions assessing the dimensions of controllability, stability, globality, and universality (the CSGU). In Study 1, using confirmatory factor analysis, factors were confirmed across least successful and most successful conditions. In Study 2, following less successful performances, correlations supported hypothesized relationships between subscales of the CSGU and subscales of the CDSII (McAuley, Duncan, & Russell, 1992). In Study 3, following less successful performances, moderated hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that individuals have higher subsequent self-efficacy when they perceive causes of performance as controllable, and/or specific, and/or universal. An interaction for controllability and stability demonstrated that if causes are perceived as likely to recur, it is important to perceive that causes are controllable. Researchers are encouraged to use the CSGU to examine main and interactive effects of controllability and generalizability attributions upon outcomes such as self-efficacy, emotions, and performance.     

Test of performances strategies: development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive measure of athletes' psychological skills.

We report the initial stages of validation of the 64-item Test of Performance Strategies, a self-report instrument designed to measure the psychological skills and strategies used by athletes in competition and during practice. Data were obtained from a sample of 472 athletes competing across a range of performance standards in a wide variety of sports. Exploratory factor analyses of their responses produced eight competition strategy subscales and eight practice strategy subscales, each consisting of four items. Internal consistencies of the subscales ranged from 0.66 to 0.81 (x = 0.75). Correlations among strategies were examined within and between performance contexts. Subgroups defined by age, sex and current standard of performance in sport differed significantly in their psychological skills and strategies.     

Psychometric properties of the Brunel Mood Scale in Chinese adolescents and adults

Abstract

Building on the work of Terry and colleagues (Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., Lane, H. J., & Keohane, L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 861–872; Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., & Fogarty, G. J. (2003). Construct validity of the Profile of Mood States-Adolescents for use with adults. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 4, 125–139.), the present study examined the validity and internal consistency reliability of the Chinese version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS-C) among 2,548 participants, comprising adolescent athletes (n = 520), adult athletes (n = 434), adolescent students (n = 673), and adult students (n = 921). Both adolescent and adult athletes completed the BRUMS-C before, during, or after regular training and both adolescent and adult students completed the BRUMS-C in a classroom setting. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) provided support for the factorial validity of a 23-item six-factor model, with one item removed from the hypothesised measurement model. Internal consistency reliabilities were satisfactory for all subscales across each of the four samples. Criterion validity was supported with strong relationships between the BRUMS-C, abbreviated POMS, and Chinese Affect Scale consistent with theoretical predictions. Multi-sample CFAs showed the BRUMS-C to be invariant at the configural, metric, strong, and structural levels for all samples. Furthermore, latent mean difference analyses showed that athletes reported significantly higher levels of fatigue than students while maintaining almost the same levels of vigour, and adolescent students reported significantly higher levels of depressed mood than the other three samples.     

The Development and Validation of a Racquetball Skills Test Battery for Young Adult Beginners

This study was designed to develop a racquetball skills test battery for young adult beginners. Based on a review of literature and the content validity phase, 5 racquetball skills components with 8 test items were formulated: service placement (left and right), power drive (forehand and backhand), power shot placement (forehand and backhand), ceiling shot, and wall rally. Participants (N = 131) were 87 male and 44 female college students who were provided two 90-min sessions of practice and preparation 1 week before the testing. The test was conducted on 2 official size racquetball courts. Each test item had 20 trials (3 trials for wall rally), and each was administered twice within 1 week. A single round-robin tournament was conducted for male and female participants, respectively. Participants were simultaneously evaluated on their overall skill levels by a trained evaluator using a subjective 5-point rating scale. Data on subjective rating and tournament standing were used as criterion variables for examining the test validity. Intercorrelations revealed that all test items had validity coefficients equal to or greater than .50, except for 2 items, service placement to the left and the right, which were dropped from further analysis. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the remaining 6 skills test items were predictive of the 2 criterion variables, with the multiple correlations equal to .67 and .68 for males and .61 and .75 for females. Using factorial repeated measures analysis of variance, generalizability reliability was computed. The G coefficients for the items ranged from .61 to .84. The D studies revealed that testing over a minimum of 2 days would be the best test protocol for most racquetball skills test items. To achieve sufficient reliability (i.e., G coefficient >>.70), the minimum number of trials administered each day was suggested for each item.     

A Children's Form of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory: The CSAI-2C

Given the nonexistence of a multidimensional competitive state anxiety inventory for children, the 27-item Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990) was revised. The first phase of the process entailed administering a version (the CSAI-2C) with language modified for children ages 8 to 12 years (N = 119). Exploratory factor analysis supported a 3-dimensional competitive anxiety model (Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Confidence). The revised inventory includes 5 items per scale compared to the 9 items per scale on the CSAI-2. The second phase of test development for the CSAI-2C included adding items to assess Concentration Disruption (CD). Exploratory factor analytic procedures (N = 627) further supported the original 3 scales, but adequate measurement of the CD dimension was not evidenced. The final phase (N = 632), employing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), demonstrated the psychometric worthiness of a 3-dimensional model in assessing competitive state anxiety using the CSAI-2C.     

Monitoring biological and psychological measures throughout an entire season in male handball players

Abstract

The aim of this study was to monitor biological markers of inflammation and oxidative stress, mood states, and recovery-stress states throughout an entire season in male handball players. Fourteen handball players (age 20.1±2.5 years) with a regular training and competitive background in handball (11.0±3.7 years) from the same club volunteered to participate. All participants completed 40 weeks of training. The training load was increased progressively throughout the season. Blood samples were collected and questionnaires were administered during preparatory, competitive, and recovery periods. Blood C-reactive protein and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) concentrations increased during periods of high load, while the reduced/oxidized glutathione ratio (GSH/GSSG) decreased. These changes were accompanied by a significant increase in total leukocyte count. Positive correlations were found between C-reactive protein, GSSG, GSH/GSSG ratio, and training load. No changes were observed in the Total Mood Disturbance score of the Profile of Mood States (POMS). However, scores on some Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes subscales, such as Injury, Physical Recovery, and Being in Shape, correlated with training load. Findings indicate that during periods of high training load, handball players developed a low grade of inflammation and oxidative state. Results support the usefulness of monitoring psychological and biological markers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and training load during season.     

Development and Preliminary Validation of the Time Management for Exercise Scale

The purpose of this study was to collect preliminary validity evidence for a time management scale for exercise. An initial pool of 91 items was developed from existing literature. Ten exercise/health psychologists evaluated each of the items in terms of relevance and representativeness. Forty-nine items met all criteria. Exploratory factor analysis of the initial pool of items with a sample of 501 undergraduate students revealed an interpretable 32-item, 4-factor solution: exercise importance, exercise documentation, perceived ability to manage time for exercise, and setting exercise goals. Internal consistency values ranged from 0.73 to 0.91. Time management for exercise appears to be related to exercise behavior as indicated by moderate correlations between each of the subscales and exercise behavior.     

Long and short measures of flow: the construct validity of the FSS-2, DFS-2, and new brief counterparts

Long and short flow scales are examined from dispositional (n=652 long; n=692 short) and state (n=499 long; n=865 short) perspectives. The long flow scales constitute a 36-item multidimensional assessment of flow and have previously demonstrated good psychometric properties. The short flow scales constitute new abbreviated versions of the long forms, contain 9 items, and provide a brief measure of flow from a dimensional perspective. In the current study, long and short flow scales are assessed across a large and diverse physical activity sample. With few exceptions, these flow measures demonstrated acceptable model fit, reliability, and distributions; associations with key correlates in parallel and hypothesized ways; and invariance in factor loadings. Together, the scales provide options for assessing flow in different contexts and when different goals or constraints are operating. Researchers wanting to capture an aggregate of the multidimensional framework might find the short scales a pragmatic alternative when constraints prohibit use of the full-length versions.     

Development and Psychometric Testing of the Dogs and WalkinG Survey (DAWGS)

Purpose

Dog owners represent 40% of the population, a promising audience to increase population levels of physical activity. The purpose of this study was to develop and test the psychometric properties of a new instrument to assess social-cognitive theory constructs related to dog walking.

Method

Dog owners (N = 431) completed the Dogs and WalkinG Survey (DAWGS). Survey items assessed dog-walking behaviors and self-efficacy, social support, outcome expectations, and outcome expectancies for dog walking. Test–retest reliability was assessed among 252 (58%) survey respondents who completed the survey twice. Factorial validity and factorial invariance by age and walking level were tested using confirmatory factor analysis.

Results

DAWGS items demonstrated moderate test–retest reliability (ρ = .39–.79; k = .41–.89). Acceptable model fit was found for all subscales. All subscales were invariant by age and walking level, except self-efficacy, which showed mixed evidence of invariance.

Conclusions

The DAWGS is a psychometrically sound instrument for examining individual and interpersonal correlates of dog walking.     

Running speed increases plantar load more than per cent body weight on an AlterG® treadmill

AlterG® treadmills allow for running at different speeds as well as at reduced bodyweight (BW), and are used during rehabilitation to reduce the impact load. The aim of this study was to quantify plantar loads borne by the athlete during rehabilitation. Twenty trained male participants ran on the AlterG® treadmill in 36 conditions: all combinations of indicated BW (50–100%) paired with different walking and running speeds (range 6–16 km · hr^–1) in a random order. In-shoe maximum plantar force (Fmax) was recorded using the Pedar-X system. Fmax was lowest at the 6 km · hr^–1 at 50% indicated BW condition at 1.02 ± 0.21BW and peaked at 2.31 ± 0.22BW for the 16 km · hr^–1 at 100% BW condition. Greater increases in Fmax were seen when increasing running speed while holding per cent BW constant than the reverse (0.74BW–0.91BW increase compared to 0.19–0.31BW). A table is presented with each of the 36 combinations of BW and running speed to allow a more objective progression of plantar loading during rehabilitation. Increasing running speed rather than increasing indicated per cent BW was shown to have the strongest effect on the magnitude of Fmax across the ranges of speeds and indicated per cent BWs examined.     

The performance environment of the England youth soccer teams: a quantitative investigation

We examined the performance environment of the England youth soccer teams. Using a conceptually grounded questionnaire developed from the themes identified by Pain and Harwood (2007), 82 players and 23 national coaches and support staff were surveyed directly following international tournaments regarding the factors that positively and negatively influenced performance. The survey enabled data to be captured regarding both the extent and magnitude of the impact of the factors comprising the performance environment. Overall, team and social factors were generally perceived to have the greatest positive impact, with players and staff showing high levels of consensus in their evaluations. Team leadership and strong team cohesion were identified by both groups as having the greatest positive impact. Overall, far fewer variables were perceived to have a negative impact on performance, especially for players. The main negatives common to both groups were players losing composure during games, player boredom, and a lack of available activities in the hotel. The major findings support those of Pain and Harwood (2007) and in using a larger sample helped to corroborate and strengthen the generalizability of the findings.     

Development and Initial Validation of the Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale in Physical Education

The current study presents the development process and initial validation of a measure designed for assessing psychological needs satisfaction in a secondary school physical education context (Psychological Needs Satisfaction Scale in Physical Education, PNSSPE). Junior secondary school (grades 7 to 9) students (N?=?1,258) were invited to participate in three studies. In Study 1, item generation (34 items) and initial content validity of the PNSSPE were achieved. In Study 2, the factorial structure of the PNSSPE was tested using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliabilities of the subscales were also examined. In Study 3, the reliability and validity of the scores derived from the PNSSPE were further examined in an independent sample. Overall, the PNSSPE demonstrated good content, factorial, discriminant, and nomological validities. It also demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and test–retest reliability. The measurement model was proven invariant across gender and samples. Psychometric evidence from a series of studies suggests that the PNSSPE could be used as a reliable and valid measure to assess Hong Kong secondary school students’ satisfaction of psychological needs in physical education.     

Examination of the psychometric properties of the perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire-2 in a sample of female athletes

We undertook two studies to determine the validity and reliability of the revised Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2). In Study 1, 201 female athletes (mean age 16.4 years) were administered the initial version of the PMCSQ-2 and a measure of reported tension and pressure experienced in sport. Exploratory principal component analysis suggested that the PMCSQ-2 contained two higher-order scales (Task-Involving and Ego-Involving climates), each with three subscales (Task: Cooperative Learning, Effort/ Improvement, Important Role; Ego: Intra-Team Member Rivalry, Unequal Recognition, Punishment for Mistakes). In Study 2, 385 female volleyball players (mean age 15.2 years) completed the PMCSQ-2, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory and a measure of Team Satisfaction. Confirmatory factor analysis was applied to six competing models. The oblique six-factor model and oblique hierarchical model provided comparable fit to the data. Acceptable fit was reached based on model respecification. Across Studies 1 and 2, internal consistency was found to be acceptable for the higher-order scales and subscales (with the exception of the Intra-Team Member Rivalry subscale). We found evidence for the concurrent validity of the instrument.     

Examination of the psychometric properties of the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire - 2 in a sample of female athletes

We undertook two studies to determine the validity and reliability of the revised Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2). In Study 1, 201 female athletes (mean age 16.4 years) were administered the initial version of the PMCSQ-2 and a measure of reported tension and pressure experienced in sport. Exploratory principal component analysis suggested that the PMCSQ-2 contained two higher-order scales (Task-Involving and Ego-Involving climates), each with three subscales (Task: Cooperative Learning, Effort/Improvement, Important Role; Ego: Intra-Team Member Rivalry, Unequal Recognition, Punishment for Mistakes). In Study 2, 385 female volleyball players (mean age 15.2 years) completed the PMCSQ-2, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory and a measure of Team Satisfaction. Confirmatory factor analysis was applied to six competing models. The oblique six-factor model and oblique hierarchical model provided comparable fit to the data. Acceptable fit was reached based on model respecification. Across Studies 1 and 2, internal consistency was found to be acceptable for the higher-order scales and subscales (with the exception of the Intra-Team Member Rivalry subscale). We found evidence for the concurrent validity of the instrument.     

Contextual Interference Effects in Learning Three Badminton Serves

Abstract

This study investigated the generalizability of results of contextual interference effects by extending previous laboratory research to a field setting. Thirty female subjects (N = 30) learned three badminton serves in either a blocked (low interference), serial (mixed interference), or random (high interference) practice schedule. The subjects practiced the serves three days a week for three weeks. On the day following the completion of practice the subjects were given a retention and transfer test. Results replicated previous findings of contextual interference research by showing a significant group by block interaction between acquisition trials, retention, and transfer. The random group performed better on both retention and transfer than the blocked group. The significant trial block by contextual interference interaction also supports the generalizability of contextual interference effects, as posited by Shea and Morgan (1979), to the teaching of motor skills.     

Student–student relations from the teacher versus student perspective: A multi-level confirmatory factor analysis

Educational research emphasizes the advantages of multimethod designs. However, if the design comprises different perspectives, the question of construct validity emerges. We related this question to student and teacher ratings of student–student relations, which are of high interest in research on physical education. In our study, 2,160 students and their 114 physical education teachers answered parallel items. Data was analyzed by applying the multi-level correlated trait-correlated method minus one approach, which makes it possible to consider multiple indicators per trait and to distinguish between trait, method, and error components. The student–student relations subscales student conflicts, class cohesion, and pleasure in demonstrating were reliable and valid regarding the two perspectives. Moreover, teacher and student ratings of student–student relations were consistent to a certain extent. The administered questionnaire was suitable for both perspectives. The applied model provides a good basis for similar research questions regarding construct validity.     

The effects of synchronous music on 400-m sprint performance

The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of motivating and oudeterous (neither motivating nor demotivating) synchronous music on 400-m sprint performance while controlling for the potential confound of pre-performance mood. A panel of volunteer Caucasian males (n = 20; mean age = 20.5 years, s = 1.2) rated the motivational qualities of 32 musical selections using the Brunel Music Rating Inventory-2. An experimental group of volunteer Caucasian males (n = 36; mean age = 20.4 years, s = 1.4) completed three 400-m time trials under conditions of motivational music, oudeterous music, and a no-music control. Pre-performance mood was assessed using the Brunel University Mood Scale (BRUMS). A series of repeated-measures analyses of variance with Bonferroni adjustment revealed no differences in the BRUMS subscales. A repeated-measures analysis of variance on the 400-m times showed a significant effect (F1.24, 42.19 = 10.54, P < 0.001, eta 2 = 0.24) and follow-up pair wise comparisons revealed differences between the synchronous music conditions and the control condition. This finding supported the first research hypothesis, that synchronous music would result in better performance than a no-music control, but not the second hypothesis, that performance in the motivational synchronous music condition would be better than that in the oudeterous condition. It appears that synchronous music can be applied to anaerobic endurance performance among non-elite sports persons with a considerable positive effect.     

A meta-analysis of the drive for muscularity's relationships with exercise behaviour,disordered eating,supplement consumption,and exercise dependence

ABSTRACT

We examined the drive for muscularity's (DFM) relationships with exercise behaviour, disordered eating, supplement consumption, and exercise dependence in males. By searching electronic databases, manually reviewing journal tables of contents and retrieved article reference lists, and corresponding with leading researchers, we identified 77 studies. A random effects model was applied to perform analyses and we adjusted results for possible publication bias. The average effect sizes (r) the DFM had with weight training (.31), non-weight training (.11), disordered eating (.30), supplement consumption (.36), and exercise dependence (.43) were significant (P < .05). The relationship between the attitudes and behavioural subscales of the DFM Scale (r = .47) was significant (P < .001). For supplement consumption, moderator analysis indicated that r varied significantly for questionnaire type and participant status (student versus non-student, P < .01). The small to moderate relationships indicate the value of adopting theoretical perspectives allowing the examination of the DFM's role in predicting exercise and dietary behaviour within a broader psychosocial context. Most researchers have studied these relationships in isolation. The relationship between the two DFM subscales implies that the questionnaire total score may better represent a commitment to muscularity rather than a drive per se.     

A Weighted Kappa Coefficient for Three Observers as a Measure for Reliability of Expert Ratings on Characteristics in Handball Throwing Patterns

Generalizability theory was used to examine both the relative and absolute generalizability of the observed resistance, reactance, and phase angle measurements of total body bioelectrical impedance (Z) for men and women, using the Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis with modified electrode placement sites (Spectrum Lightweight Instrument; RJL Systems, Detroit, MI). Eighty men and 83 women from a military air force base volunteered as participants. RJL's rules for testing whole-body Z were followed with modification of the proximal electrode placement sites to the center of the antecubital space and popliteal fossa. The design was a 4-faceted crossed Person x Day x Occasion x Trial design treating all facets as random. Each participant was tested by 1 experienced tester on 2 days, 2 occasions, and 3 trials. Data were analyzed independently for each Z measurement anal each sex group. Overall, the modified electrode placement sites produced generalizability coefficients that were equal to or lower than the coefficients reported by Turner, Bouffard, and Lukaski (1996) using standard electrode placement sites. It is concluded that the standard method of measuring Z produces higher generalizability coefficients than the modified electrode placement method.