A current landscape of specific learning disability identification: Training,practices, and implications

Specific learning disability (SLD) identification procedures vary across states (Maki et al., 2015, School Psychol Quart, 30, 457–469); however, the extent to which SLD identification methods are implemented at the district level is not well understood. Moreover, the high‐stakes nature of SLD identification necessitates extensive training, but research regarding graduate and postgraduate training in SLD is limited. This study examined school psychologists’ SLD training and practices through survey methodology. Results showed that a growing number of school psychologists use, prefer, and receive training in response to intervention and pattern of strengths and weaknesses to identify students with SLD while the use of and preference for ability–achievement discrepancy may be decreasing. However, nearly one‐third of school psychologists still reported the use of ability–achievement discrepancy. In addition, over half of school psychologists reported using state department of education guidance documents to inform their SLD identification practices. Implications for training and practice are discussed.     

The Blueprint I revisited: Training and practice in school psychology

In 1984, the National School Psychology Inservice Training Network (NSPITN) published School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice (Blueprint I), which recognized that America's public schools were troubled and focused on how school psychology could help with a transformation; the role of school psychologists was divided into 16 practice domains. In 1997, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) published a successor, School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice II (Blueprint II), which credits the first edition with having “driven much of the progress in school psychology.” To better understand the impact of the Blueprint I, this study analyzes responses from Nebraska and Iowa school psychologists about it, finding that doctoral-level respondents believed that they were more competently trained than subdoctoral school psychologists in the research domain; quality of training was rated higher by respondents receiving degrees after 1984 in class management, classroom organization and social structures, interpersonal communication and consultation, legal/ethical and professional issues, multicultural concerns, parental involvement, research, and systems development and planning. Analyses revealed numerous areas of congruence and dissonance between training and practice. Respondents reported a preference to decrease the amount of time spent in assessment and increase the time spent in all other domains (except basic academic skills). The relevance to the Blueprint II and the implications for school psychology training and practices are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Chinese parental involvement and class-based inequality in education: the role of social networking sites

ABSTRACT

Based on an ethnographic study, this article presents the class-based disparities of Chinese parents’ usage of WeChat, the dominating social networking mobile application in China, in their educational involvement. We find that middle-class parents are the privileged ones who have exploited the use of WeChat not only as a medium for communication, but more as a mode of influence. Through WeChat, their various forms of capital are channelled to catalyse changes in their children's education. In contrast, working-class parents tend to act as absent participants in using WeChat for their educational involvement. We argue that WeChat has brought forth the consequence of widening the arena for winning or losing at the educational game for parents from different social classes. We call for corrective policies and guidelines on the usage of WeChat and other SNSs technologies in home–school dynamics.     

Increasing school personnel's self-efficacy,knowledge, and response regarding nonsuicidal self-injury in youth

Rates of students engaging in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) are rising and additional supports in the schools are needed (Nock, 2010, Ann Rev Clin Psychol, 6, 339–363; Stargell et al., 2017, Prof Sch Couns, 21, 37-46). School psychologists, school counselors, and school nurses are key personnel in responding to self-injurious behaviors within the school setting. The results of a practice-based research project are described, in which school psychologists, school counselors, and school nurses participated in training to increase their self-efficacy, knowledge, and response in regard to NSSI. The training provided information regarding best practice in responding to NSSI in youth (Hasking et al., 2016, Sch Psychol Int, 37(6), 644–663; Kanan et al., 2008, Sch Psychol Forum: Res Prac, 2, 67–79; Walsh & Muehlenkamp, 2013, Sch Psychol Forum: Res Prac, 7, 161–171). This exploratory study indicated that training positively impacted participants' perceived self-efficacy and knowledge with respect to responding to youth who engage in NSSI. Handouts and resources for school-based staff are included. Limitations and future directions are discussed.     

Identifying challenges in supervising school psychologists

Previous studies suggest that the majority of school psychologists do not believe they receive sufficient supervision, despite a growing body of research providing empirical support for supervision to maintain and improve skills. This study explores the dynamics underlying the challenges of providing adequate supervision to school psychologists. Findings suggest that supervision of school psychologists is characterized by challenges that extend beyond the traditional demarcations of clinical and administrative supervision typical in clinical settings. Supervisors of school psychologists encounter systemic challenges, unique to school settings, which must be addressed for their supervisees to be able to function successfully. The findings suggest that a clinical–administrative–systemic model of supervision is most appropriate in the supervision of school psychologists. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

EVIDENCE FOR THE EXPANDING ROLE OF CONSULTATION IN THE PRACTICE OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

In 2010, the National Association of School Psychologists approved the Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (or the NASP Practice Model), codifying what an expanded role encompasses in the delivery of school‐based psychological services. This study examined the role and function of school psychology practitioners from three Midwestern states with different legal statues and policy initiatives related to the practice of school psychology. A total of 175 practicing school psychologists from Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa reported their actual and preferred practices and completed a self‐assessment on their knowledge of the NASP Practice Model. Results showed participants not only identified problem‐solving consultation as their most knowledgeable domain of practice but also the activity on which they spent the greatest amount of their time. Analysis by state revealed differential levels of practice devoted to consultation and intervention. Study findings are discussed relative to the potential impact and importance of state law and policy initiatives.     

Confronting White privilege: the importance of intersectionality in the sociology of education

Abstract

This article explores how White privilege and a hierarchy of oppression have resulted in competing identities in which gender has been given greater importance compared to race. I argue that the sociology of education needs to adopt an intersectional approach that travels in different directions if it is to remain valid. The article examines how gender, perpetuated by White privilege, continues to play a key role in the positioning of Black and minority ethnic staff, students and pupils within a range of stereotypes that operate to marginalise their life trajectories. The article argues that if sociologists of education are unwilling to challenge White privileged populist discourses and their own positions of White privilege, then they will become complicit in maintaining a socially unjust status quo.     

Manpower needs in rural school psychology

The majority of unserved and underserved handicapped children live in rural America (Sher, 1978). One obstacle to serving these children is a lack of qualified staff (Helge, 1981). The turnover rates for rural and urban school psychologists in Virginia were determined for the years 1977–78 through 1979–80: the rate for rurai school psychologists is four times the rate for urban school psychologists (p<.001). Rural school psychologists who terminated employment and rural school psychologists who remained were surveyed on selected background variables in 1981. School psychologists who remained were much more likely than those who left to have been raised in a nonurban community. Implications for training programs are discussed.     

CURRENT AND FUTURE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PREPAREDNESS TO WORK WITH LGBT STUDENTS: ROLE OF EDUCATION AND GAY‐STRAIGHT ALLIANCES

This study sought to assess current and future school psychologists’ attitudes toward and preparedness to address the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students in schools. Two‐hundred seventy‐nine school psychologists (n = 162, 58%) and school psychology graduate students (n = 117, 42%) were included in the study. Participants completed measures of attitudes toward LGBT students, preparedness to address the needs of LGBT youth, and social desirability. For both school psychologists and graduate students, increased education was associated with improved attitudes and increased preparedness to treat LGBT youth. For school psychologists, presence of a gay‐straight alliance was associated with increased knowledge about LGBT youth, as well as higher ratings of preparedness to treat LGBT youth; the same associations did not hold true for the graduate students. These findings have implications for the training and practice of school psychologists in addressing the needs of LGBT youth in schools.     

Private practice of school psychology: Implications from the APA specialty guidelines

A model of school psychology private practice is developed that is appropriate to the unique training and experience of school psychologists and is consistent with the professional functions outlined in the Specialty Guidelines for rhe Delivery of Services by School Psychologists developed by the American Psychological Association. Each of the six functions is examined to see how it could be conducted effectively within the parameters of private practice. Client populations and recruitment efforts are addressed briefly. A cautionary note is sounded about several potential ethical conflicts that have particular relevance to the private practice of school psychology; i.e., competence, communication of services to the public, and conflicts of interest.     

IDENTIFYING STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE: SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PRACTICES AND PERCEPTIONS

From its inception as a disability category in the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, serving students under the special education category Emotional Disturbance (ED) has been a challenging task for school psychologists. In particular, the vague and ambiguous federal definition has created an environment in which inconsistent assessment practices and decision making are almost inevitable. In this study, we examined school psychologists’ (N = 214) assessment practices when determining initial eligibility for ED, as well as their perceptions regarding the language contained within the federal ED definition. Findings indicated that although school psychologists recognize the need for a multimethod, multisource assessment model when ED is a classification consideration, in many instances, their actual assessments are missing commonly recommended sources of data for making eligibility decisions, including classroom observations; parent, teacher, and student interviews; and behavior rating scales. The results from the study provide a useful overview of school psychologists’ assessment practices and are couched within the questions and confusion that have surrounded the federal ED definition since its codification into law.     

ADMINISTRATIVE PRESSURE TO PRACTICE UNETHICALLY AND BURNOUT WITHIN THE PROFESSION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

This investigation involved the surveying of school psychology practitioners (N = 291) to determine the possible existence of a relationship between administrative pressure to practice unethically and impaired occupational health, as manifested in elevated levels of burnout, job dissatisfaction, and intent to exit the workforce. Almost one‐third of participants claimed to have been pressured to behave unethically, with directives most commonly consisting of instructions to withhold recommendations for support services and to agree with inappropriate special education placement decisions. Practitioners who experienced administrative pressure reported higher levels of burnout, less satisfaction with their current position and the profession, and a greater desire to leave their job and the field of school psychology. The findings are presented within the context of current and projected shortages of practicing school psychologists. Implications for preventing burnout and promoting school psychologists’ occupational well‐being are discussed.     

A comparison of teachers' and school psychologists' perceptions of the importance of CHC abilities in the classroom

The broad cognitive abilities defined by the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory have been shown to predict school achievement. However, the ecological validity of these constructs has not been studied in classroom settings. This study compares ratings by a sample of teachers (n = 53) and school psychologists (n = 86) of the importance of the CHC cognitive abilities in the classroom. The scale demonstrated adequate reliability (total scale α = .93, median α = .74), although evidence of construct validity varied between teachers and school psychologists. Both teachers and school psychologists rated quantitative ability, crystallized knowledge, and fluid reasoning as most important to school success. However, school psychologists rated short‐term memory and quantitative ability as more important than did the teachers. Importance of these differences for consultation is discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Facilitators of and barriers to school psychologists' social–emotional/behavioral practices

Using data from a national survey of school psychologists we investigated (a) the extent to which school psychologists supported students' social–emotional and behavioral well-being using data and evidence-based practices programming, (b) how facilitators and barriers impacted school psychologists' service delivery in these areas, and (c) how participants' demographic characteristics predicted facilitators to these practices. The survey was administered to randomly selected National Association of School Psychologists' members. One hundred ninety-nine full-time, school-based school psychologists (24% response rate) completed the survey. Results indicated more practitioners reported using data to design, implement, and evaluate evidence-based strategies for social–emotional and behavioral supports (M = 3.32, SD = 0.90) than reported using evidence-based strategies themselves in these same areas (M = 3.10, SD = 1.05). School psychologists who reported more facilitators were more likely to use data and engage in evidence-based practices related to social–emotional and behavioral supports for students. Results also indicated certain barriers impeded school psychologists' practices in these areas. Few demographic characteristics predicted the presence of facilitators or barriers. Findings from the current study extend the extant literature by providing empirical data on facilitators of and barriers to services related to school psychologists' use of data and evidence-based practices in these areas.     

Demographics and professional practices of school psychologists: A comparison of NASP members and non–NASP school psychologists by telephone survey

A national telephone survey was conducted to examine potential differences between National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) members and non–NASP member school psychologists. Identified schools were contacted by telephone and the researchers asked to speak with the school psychologist. A sample of 124 practicing school psychologists was obtained. Overall, 57.3% (n = 71) of respondents were NASP members, and 42.7% (n = 53) were not. In most respects, current results were similar to NASP‐member‐only surveys. Current results suggest that previous studies overestimated the proportion of NASP members among school psychologists and may have underestimated the total number of school‐based practitioners. Significant differences between NASP members and nonmembers were found in ethnicity, national certification, professional organization membership, and use of Curriculum Based Measurement. Results are discussed in the context of previous national surveys. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Integrating Models of Collaborative Consultation and Systems Change to Implement Forgiveness-Focused Bullying Interventions

Through collaborative consultation with school staff, school psychologists have increasingly helped schools add bullying prevention and intervention programming to their service delivery systems. As schools search for ways to lessen the impact of bullying on the social-emotional health and academic achievement of students, forgiveness education is an area that may offer another perspective to bullying prevention and intervention. In order to infuse forgiveness education into schools' current tiered-service delivery systems, school psychologists and their district partners can use the frameworks of collaborative strategic planning (CSP) and the concerns-based adoption model (CBAM) in tandem to guide the development and implementation of forgiveness-focused bullying interventions at the core, supplementary, and intensive levels of a multitiered system of service delivery.     

School-Based Consultation to Improve Concussion Recognition and Response

Many students who have sustained concussions return to school requiring academic adjustments while their brains heal. However, school personnel often are not trained to accommodate these students. This exploratory project examined the usefulness of school-based training paired with ongoing consultation and continued dissemination of information to improve both concussion recognition and response among school personnel. A case study design was employed in which a school district received training that was followed by ongoing consultation and continued dissemination of concussion resources. This study highlights the importance of involving school psychologists in concussion management programs.     

From Desegregation to Privatization: A Critical Race Policy Analysis of School Choice and Educational Opportunity in North Carolina

ABSTRACT

School choice policies and the movement to privatize education have become the currently preferred school reform methods on both the state and federal levels under the guise they will provide equal educational opportunities and access for all students. The 1954 school desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education arguably paved the way for equal educational opportunities, including school choice; however, we contend that the present-day school choice and privatization movements may be a part of a larger social, political, and legal cycle of inequality that has established residence in the American educational system for more than a century. We conduct a critical race theory policy analysis using a framework that has been effective in previous work with examining cyclical inequalities, the convergence-divergence-reclamation cycle (or C-D-R cycle). In this article, we are focusing our analysis on the state of North Carolina due to its complex legal and political history with school desegregation and its recent support for various school choice options and privatizing public education. We assert that the push for school choice and privatizing public education in North Carolina demonstrates a broader, recurring problem in American public schools-–creating progressive education laws and policies appearing to promote educational equity and opportunity and then regressing to policies supporting White privilege while maintaining the status quo of inequitable educational opportunities for historically underserved and minoritized students.     

Analysis of author affiliation across four school psychology journals from 2000 to 2008: Where is the practitioner research?

Articles published between 2000 and 2008 in four major school psychology journals—School Psychology Review, Journal of School Psychology, Psychology in the Schools, and School Psychology Quarterly—were classified based on type (empirical or narrative) and on the primary and secondary authors' affiliations. Results showed that more than 90% of the primary and secondary authors were university affiliated with little difference across article type. Although more than 85% of school psychologists are practitioners, these results suggest that their contributions to these school psychology journals are limited because they account for less than 10% of the authors of articles. Discussion focuses on practitioners' involvement in the research base that is intended to inform their professional behaviors. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

PERSONNEL NEEDS IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: A 10‐YEAR FOLLOW‐UP STUDY ON PREDICTED PERSONNEL SHORTAGES

Concerns regarding whether a sufficient supply of school psychologists exists have been evident for decades. Studies have predicted that school psychology would face a critical personnel shortage that would peak in 2010, but continue into the foreseeable future. The current study is a 10‐year follow‐up investigation based on previously published personnel shortage projections. Data derived from the National Association of School Psychologists 2009–2010 national study were used to examine current personnel shortages as well as to project the extent to which personnel shortages are likely to continue. Findings indicate that the field of school psychology continues to experience a personnel shortage that will continue through 2025. Additionally, greater rates of retirements are projected for the field for school psychologists who are males, who possess a doctoral degree, and for university faculty. Analyses based on the U.S. Census Regions indicate that notable differences are likely to occur in the match between the supply of and demand for school psychologists based on geographical location. Implications are discussed relating to the recruitment and retention of school psychologists and to the services they deliver.