Mastery Motivation: Definition and Measurement

This paper presents a working definition of mastery motivation which has evolved from our research with infants and young children over the past two decades. We define mastery motivation as a psychological force that stimulates an individual to attempt independently, in a focused and persistent manner, to solve a problem or master a skill or task which is at least moderately challenging for him or her. After describing key features of this definition, we discuss three conceptual issues: 1) the distinction between mastery motivation and cognitive competence, 2) developmental transitions in mastery motivation, and 3) the breadth of the concept. The paper concludes with a long section on assessing mastery motivation. Persistence at tasks is the main measure of the strength of the child's mastery motivation. Our structured task procedure, for 15- to 36-month-old children, attempts to disentangle mastery motivation and competence. We have also developed a questionnaire to assess mastery motivation in general and in five specific behavioral domains: social, symbolic, combinatorial, means-end, and gross motor. We believe that our definition helps to clarify the concept of mastery motivation and that our assessment procedures will facilitate future research.     

Mastery Motivation: Definition and Measurement

This paper presents a working definition of mastery motivation which has evolved from our research with infants and young children over the past two decades. We define mastery motivation as a psychological force that stimulates an individual to attempt independently, in a focused and persistent manner, to solve a problem or master a skill or task which is at least moderately challenging for him or her. After describing key features of this definition, we discuss three conceptual issues: 1) the distinction between mastery motivation and cognitive competence, 2) developmental transitions in mastery motivation, and 3) the breadth of the concept. The paper concludes with a long section on assessing mastery motivation. Persistence at tasks is the main measure of the strength of the child's mastery motivation. Our structured task procedure, for 15- to 36-month-old children, attempts to disentangle mastery motivation and competence. We have also developed a questionnaire to assess mastery motivation in general and in five specific behavioral domains: social, symbolic, combinatorial, means-end, and gross motor. We believe that our definition helps to clarify the concept of mastery motivation and that our assessment procedures will facilitate future research.     

Motor and coordination difficulties in children with emotional and behavioural difficulties

To date, very few studies have explored the incidence of motor impairment amongst children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (social, emotional and mental health (SEMH); formerly SEBD in England). Following research that suggests an increase in motor difficulties in young children and adolescents with SEMH difficulties, this study compares profiles of motor ability using the Movement ABC-2 assessment in children attending a specialist SEMH primary school with a typically developing comparison group and children with a diagnosis of developmental coordination disorder. We report an increased prevalence of borderline or clinically significant motor impairment amongst children with SEMH difficulties compared to the comparison group, with 44% of the SEMH special school sample falling within these ranges. We suggest that bearing in mind the increased likelihood for motor impairment is important in SEMH education, as it has likely impact on classroom functioning and ability and motivation to take part in socially and academically relevant activities.     

Mastery Motivation in Children with Intellectual Disability: Is there Evidence for a Down Syndrome Behavioural Phenotype?

The main purpose of the current study was to provide empirical evidence to support or refute assumptions of phenotypic deficits in motivation for children with Down syndrome (DS). Children with moderate intellectual disability (MID) associated with etiologies other than DS were recruited in an extension of a previous study that involved children with DS and typically developing children. The participants were 29 children with MID and 33 children with DS who were matched on mental age to 33 typically developing children, aged 3–8 years. Mastery motivation was assessed on task measures of curiosity, preference for challenge and persistence, as well as parental reports. There were no significant group differences on the mastery motivation tasks. Parental ratings of mastery motivation differed, with typically developing children generally being rated more highly than each of the disability groups. The view that motivational deficits are part of the DS behavioural phenotype was not supported.     

Seriation, Conservation, and Theory of Mind Abilities in Individuals with Autism, Individuals with Mental Retardation, and Normally Developing Children

Seriation, conservation, and theory of mind abilities were examined in individuals with autism ( N = 16), mental retardation ( N = 16), and in normally developing children ( N = 16). Seriation tasks included seriation of tubes, blocks, and flat squares. Conservation tasks included conservation of area, number, substance, quantity, and weight. Theory of mind tasks involved predicting false belief and understanding value and fact beliefs. Participants with autism performed better than participants with mental retardation on seriation, while no differences emerged between these groups on conservation and false belief. Individuals with autism performed less well than individuals with mental retardation on the value and fact belief tasks; however, when verbal ability was held as a covariant, the difference was no longer significant. Normally developing children performed better than the other two groups on all tasks. These results suggest that autism does not involve a specific impairment in theory of mind and that theory of mind deficits are not unique to autism.     

Object Mastery Motivation in Pre-school Children with and without Disabilities

In this study the level of object mastery motivation between children with Down's syndrome and children without disabilities of matched mental age was investigated. Data were collected through structured observations of all the children playing with four different educational toys of increasing complexity. Four variables were examined: task pleasure, task persistence, success and off-task behaviour. A one-way ANOVA revealed both statistically significant and nonsignificant differences between groups. Participants from both groups displayed age-appropriate behaviour when playing with the toys. Those with disabilities interacted less than the comparison group with the effect-production and sensori-motor tasks (the easier tasks), whereas, with the more difficult problem-solving tasks, both groups persisted equally. It is suggested that successful attempts elicit persistence on less complex tasks, whereas on the more sophisticated ones this effect is obtained by the challenging nature of the task.     

Children with disabilities: a longitudinal study of child development and parent well-being.

This Monograph presents the results of the Early Intervention Collaborative Study, a longitudinal investigation of the cognitive and adaptive behavior development of children with developmental disabilities and the adaptation of their parents, extending from infancy through middle childhood. The study was designed to generate and test conceptual models of child and family development and contribute to the knowledge base that informs social policy and practice. The sample for the investigation reported here consists of 183 children with Down syndrome, motor impairment, developmental delay and their families who were recruited at the time of their enrollment in an early intervention program in Massachusetts or New Hampshire. Data were collected at five time points between entry to early intervention and the child's 10th birthday. Home visits were conducted at each time point and included child assessments, maternal interview, and questionnaires completed independently by both parents. Trajectories in children's development and parental well-being were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Predictor variables were measured at age 3 years when children were exiting early intervention programs. Children's type of disability predicted trajectories of development in cognition, social skills, and daily living skills. Children's type of disability also predicted changes in maternal (but not paternal) child-related and parent-related stress. Beyond type of disability, child self-regulatory processes (notably behavior problems and mastery motivation) and one aspect of the family climate (notably mother-child interaction) were key predictors of change in both child outcomes and parent well-being. A different aspect of the family climate--family relations--also predicted change in child social skills. Parent assets, measured as social support and problem-focused coping, predicted change in maternal and paternal parent-related stress respectively. The implications of these findings for both the science of child development and the policies and practices of developmental intervention are discussed.     

Mastery motivation and self-evaluative affect in toddlers: longitudinal relations with maternal behavior

This study examined relations between maternal control and evaluative feedback during the second year of life and children's mastery motivation and expressions of self-evaluative affect a year later. Participants were 75 toddlers (35 girls, 40 boys) and their mothers. Maternal controlling behavior and evaluative feedback were examined while mothers taught their 24-month-olds a challenging task. Children's mastery motivation and expressions of self-evaluative affect were assessed during easy and difficult achievement-like tasks when they were 36 months old. Maternal evaluative feedback and control style at 24 months predicted children's shame, persistence, and avoidance of mastery activities at 36 months. Specifically, negative maternal evaluations at age two related to children's later shame, especially when feedback was linked to children's actions or products; positive maternal feedback overall, as well as corrective feedback, related to children's later persistence; mothers who engaged in more autonomy-supporting control with their 2-year-olds had children who were less likely to avoid challenging activities at age 3. Children's pride at 36 months was not predicted by mothers' behavior at 24 months.     

Learning in Early Intervention Programs: The Generalization and Maintenance of IEP Objectives

This study investigates the maintenance and generalization of preacademic objectives in children with mental retardation from early intervention programs. All the subjects (25) had mastered, according to their Individual Education Programs (IEPs), at least one task in the areas of color, shape, number, or big/little . They, along with children in three comparison groups, were given a series of tasks that included the same previously achieved IEP objectives (maintenance) and closely related tasks within the same domain (generalization). The findings indicated variability in maintenance and generalization for the children in early intervention, better for color and shape than for number and big/little. Success on generalization was below the usual standard indicating mastery (85%-100%). On the generalization tasks, children in early intervention performed similarly to older children with retardation who had lower standard scores (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised) but roughly equivalent language ages. They performed less well than older children with retardation who had similar standard scores but higher language ages. They also performed less well than children without disabilities in regular preschool programs who were close in chronological age, but had higher standard scores and higher language ages. We conclude that performance on these tasks is closely tied to developmental age regardless of chronological age and "IQ" status. Findings are discussed in relationship to preacademic curriculum in early intervention programs.     

Individual Differences in Mastery Motivation in Infants

Potential sources of individual differences in mastery motivation are the attachment relationship (hypothesis 1) and specific features of infant engagement with persons and objects (hypothesis 2). We reviewed studies pertaining to both hypotheses. We distinguished between three types of mastery motivation measures and measures conceptually related to mastery motivation. In studies of infants older but not younger than 20 months, hypothesis 1 was generally supported. Consistent with hypothesis 2, amount and contingency of stimulation were related to increased mastery motivation in infants as young as 6 months. Maternal affect during mastery motivation tasks and withdrawal or intrusiveness during mother-infant interactions may also influence mastery motivation. For neither hypothesis did study designs support inferences about causality. Future studies should support causal inferences about main effects and interactions among these various factors; and evaluate how developmental level or prior experience may constrain or facilitate change in mastery motivation.     

Individual Differences in Mastery Motivation in Infants

Potential sources of individual differences in mastery motivation are the attachment relationship (hypothesis 1) and specific features of infant engagement with persons and objects (hypothesis 2). We reviewed studies pertaining to both hypotheses. We distinguished between three types of mastery motivation measures and measures conceptually related to mastery motivation. In studies of infants older but not younger than 20 months, hypothesis 1 was generally supported. Consistent with hypothesis 2, amount and contingency of stimulation were related to increased mastery motivation in infants as young as 6 months. Maternal affect during mastery motivation tasks and withdrawal or intrusiveness during mother-infant interactions may also influence mastery motivation. For neither hypothesis did study designs support inferences about causality. Future studies should support causal inferences about main effects and interactions among these various factors; and evaluate how developmental level or prior experience may constrain or facilitate change in mastery motivation.     

A Mental Age-Matched Comparison Study of Delay of Gratification in Children with Down Syndrome

The performance of 25 children with Down syndrome on delay of gratification tasks was compared with that of a mental age-matched group of typically developing children. Delay tasks included both other- and self-imposed tasks. Children with Down syndrome were significantly less able to delay gratification than the comparison group on two of the three tasks. Receptive language was associated with delay on the self-imposed task for the typically developing group but not for children with Down syndrome. It is hypothesised that there may be a lag in the development of self-regulation that is greater than the lag between chronological and mental age for children with Down syndrome, with expressive language playing a role in this lag. The practice of using mental age as the method for matching groups of children with Down syndrome with typically developing children is called into question by the results of this study.     

Gender Differences in Social Mastery Motivation and Its Relationships to Vocabulary Knowledge,Behavioral Self-Regulation,and Socioemotional Skills

The present study investigated gender differences in social mastery motivation, vocabulary knowledge, behavioral self-regulation, and socioemotional skills and examined the relationships among this knowledge and these skills by gender. Participants were 134 Chinese children (68 boys, M age = 3.80; 66 girls, M age = 3.89) and their parents recruited through local kindergartens’ parent groups. The children were administered measures of social mastery motivation, vocabulary knowledge, behavioral self-regulation, and nonverbal intelligence. Parents reported their education level and children’s socioemotional skills. Research Findings: Results revealed that boys exhibited more social mastery interactions than girls, and girls showed better behavioral self-regulation and socioemotional skills than boys. Girls with higher social mastery interaction frequency demonstrated better vocabulary knowledge and socioemotional skills, whereas boys with higher social mastery interaction frequency showed lower behavioral self-regulation. Boys, who showed more positive affect during social mastery interactions, tended to have better expressive vocabulary, which facilitated their behavioral self-regulation. Practice or Policy: Findings highlight social mastery motivation as a potential factor that facilitates children’s early development, but it may contribute to boys and girls in different ways.     

Effects of Different Instructional Approaches on Young Children's Achievement and Motivation

Children in child-centered preschools and kindergartens were compared to children in didactic, highly academic programs in terms of their basic skills achievement and a set of motivation variables. The study included 227 poor, minority, and middle-class children between the ages of 4 and 6 years. Children in didactic programs that stressed basic skills had significantly higher scores on a letters/reading achievement test but not on a numbers achievement test. Being enrolled in a didactic early childhood education program was associated with relatively negative outcomes on most of the motivation measures. Compared to children in child-centered programs, children in didactic programs rated their abilities significantly lower, had lower expectations for success on academic tasks, showed more dependency on adults for permission and approval, evidenced less pride in their accomplishments, and claimed to worry more about school. Program effects were the same for economically disadvantaged and middle-class children, and for preschoolers and kindergartners.     

Behavioral Assessment of Coping Strategies in Young Children At-risk, Developmentally Delayed, and Typically Developing

This study examined coping competence in three groups of young children: at- risk, developmentally delayed, and typically developing. The Early Coping Inventory was adapted to rate coping behaviors objectively in 114 infants and toddlers (mean age = 22 months). Typically developing children were rated as significantly more effective than children at-risk and children with developmental delays; Children at-risk received significantly higher coping ratings than did children with developmental delays. A significant main effect due to ethnicity and a developmental group by ethnicity interaction also emerged. Post hoc analyses suggested that ethnicity differences were-limited to the at-risk and developmentally delayed groups, Also, ethnicity differences in children within the at-risk group served as an informative source for understanding the developmental group by ethnicity interaction. These findings' contribution to the literature on socio-emotional competence, early childhood assessment, and prevention/intervention policies for young children are discussed.     

Motor correlates of ADHD: contribution of reading disability and oppositional defiant disorder

This study investigated whether the likelihood of motor impairment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increases with the presence of other disorders, and whether the co-occurring diagnoses of reading disability (RD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) account for the motor deficits seen in ADHD. A total of 291 children (218 boys, 73 girls) participated. Six groups of children were compared: ADHD only (n = 29); RD only (n = 63); ADHD and RD (n = 47); ADHD and ODD (n = 19); ADHD, RD, and ODD (n = 21); and typically developing control children (n = 112). Motor skills were assessed with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency and the Beery Test of Visual-Motor Integration. We found that the motor skills of the ADHD-only group did not differ from the typical control group. Furthermore, motor impairment in ADHD increased as a function of co-occurring disorders, and the presence of RD rather than ADHD predicted motor impairment.     

Self-concept, motivation, and competence among preschoolers from maltreating and comparison families

Maltreated children are at risk for impaired cognitive and school functioning. In this study, the role that home environment, self-concept, and mastery motivation play in this relation was investigated. Thirty-six preschool children and their mothers, representing three family backgrounds (12 low-income maltreating, 12 low-income comparison, 12 middle-income comparison), were assessed in a preschool/home study. Children from maltreating families scored lower than their peers on several measures of cognitive and physical competence and on ratings of motivation. At the same time, these children significantly overrated their physical competence, and self-ratings of competence and acceptance tended to be higher (and less realistic) than those of their low-income peers. An overall difference in developmental quality of the home environment of maltreating families was largely accounted for by socioeconomic status (SES), but the tendency of these homes to be less clean and safe remained significant even after SES was controlled. Various aspects of the home environment were associated with superior task performance, but not with motivation or self-perceptions. Whereas the general home environment may affect competence, relationship factors implicated in maltreatment may be more important in shaping self-concept and motivation.     

Infant Mastery Motivation: The Issue of Discriminant Validity

The purpose of this review is to examine the concept of mastery motivation in infancy from the standpoint of possible intraindividual confounds, ways in which factors other than motivation may influence individual differences in mastery motivation scores. The review begins with a brief overview of theoretical background on mastery motivation, underscoring its presumed relevance for other important constructs in development. Current operational definitions of mastery motivation are then described. The remainder of the review is devoted to consideration of alternative explanations that can account, in part, for individual differences in mastery motivation. These include infant cognitive developmental status, social orientation and attachment security, genetic/temperamental factors, and sex differences. The review concludes with specific recommendations for further inquiry on the topic of infant mastery motivation, emphasizing careful attention to the role extraneous factors play in shaping performance.     

Infant Mastery Motivation: The Issue of Discriminant Validity

The purpose of this review is to examine the concept of mastery motivation in infancy from the standpoint of possible intraindividual confounds, ways in which factors other than motivation may influence individual differences in mastery motivation scores. The review begins with a brief overview of theoretical background on mastery motivation, underscoring its presumed relevance for other important constructs in development. Current operational definitions of mastery motivation are then described. The remainder of the review is devoted to consideration of alternative explanations that can account, in part, for individual differences in mastery motivation. These include infant cognitive developmental status, social orientation and attachment security, genetic/temperamental factors, and sex differences. The review concludes with specific recommendations for further inquiry on the topic of infant mastery motivation, emphasizing careful attention to the role extraneous factors play in shaping performance.     

Mastery motivation and expressive language in young children with hearing loss

We studied the relation between mastery motivation and expressive language in 200 young children with hearing loss. Hearing mothers assessed their children's expressive language (Minnesota Child Development Inventory; Ireton & Thwing, 1974) and several aspects of mastery motivation including mastery pleasure and three components of mastery persistence (gross motor, object oriented, and social/symbolic) using the Dimensions of Mastery Motivation Questionnaire (Morgan et al., 1992). Simple correlations revealed significant relations between expressive language and all mastery motivation scales. When demographic and hearing loss variables were entered into a regression equation, only increased social/symbolic persistence was significantly related to, and increased object-oriented persistence was marginally related to, increases in expressive language quotients. Expressive language quotients also increased significantly as child age and degree of hearing loss decreased and as mothers' ratings of their child's general competence increased. In addition, decreases in the age at which the child was enrolled in intervention were marginally related to increases in expressive language quotients (f =.06).