The achievement gap between science classrooms and historic inequalities

In the past politics deprived many African children (in particular) in South Africa the opportunity of achieving quality education. This was most especially true in subjects such as mathematics and science. In this research the science teacher-level data from Third International Mathematics and Science Study 1999 (TIMSS’99) were analysed with a view to evaluating the politicized gap between what are viewed as well-functioning and provisioned classrooms (predominantly housing White teachers and White or mixed classes in urban areas) and not well-functioning and poorly provisioned classrooms (largely African teachers and African pupils in peri-urban and rural areas). The data are explored in this article to ascertain and gain insight into similarities and differences in classroom conditions, teacher actions and the relationship between these and pupils’ achievement in science in South African classrooms. Significant differences in achievement were found between classrooms headed by teachers with different racial profiles, where the pupils’ average class science score taught by White teachers was about 300 points more (on a scale with an international mean score of 500 points) than children taught in classrooms by African teachers. Furthermore, the average class science score in rural areas was about 130 points below classes in urban areas. These blatant inequalities contribute to what is believed to be an increasing gap in achievement in science. Whilst these results are not altogether unexpected, there were some interesting results in terms of possible explanatory factors for the gaps in achievement which have ramifications for policymakers.     

Leading educational improvement in Trinidad and Tobago

School leaders in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) now have the important responsibility of initiating and implementing school improvement. This raises the question of their leadership capacity and the competencies that are required for school leaders to fulfil this new role. This article focuses on school leadership in T&T. The study presented in this article utilised a qualitative interpretive research design employing a range of data collection methods, including questionnaires and interviews. The results of the study confirm a need for developing a new type of school leader who is: better trained, more research oriented, more of a risk taker and autonomous.     

The school improvement policy context in Trinidad and Tobago

There have been appeals within the educational change (EC) and school improvement (SI) literature for research to explore more non-westernized and developing country contexts (Dimmock, 2000; Harris, 2009; Harris & Chrispeels, 2006; McMahon, 2006). This article is a response to those appeals. The study maps the SI educational policy contexts of Trinidad and Tobago (T&T), a developing country in the Caribbean from 1850 to 2010. Literature on EC and SI within this country and region is sparse. This article illuminates on research which reviewed the development of SI particularly in the secondary school sector. It identifies distinct phases of SI in T&T and proposes that these phases are linked to significant educational policy development eras within the country. A documentary-based research approach was employed. This investigation is significant because it documents the SI movement in T&T and provides an understanding of how the country experienced educational change.     

Academic achievement,pupil participation and integration of group work skills in secondary school classrooms in Trinidad and Barbados

Studies have shown a positive relationship between a rise in schooling levels and economic production [World Bank, 2005. A Time to Choose: Caribbean Development in the 21st Century. World Bank, Washington, DC; Jules, V., Panneflek, A., 2000. EFA in the Caribbean: Assessment 2000, Sub-Regional Report, vol. 2, The State of Education in the Caribbean in the 1990s. UNESCO, Kingston, Jamaica; Haddad, W.D., 1990. Education and Development; Evidence for New Priorities. World Bank Discussion Paper 95. The World Bank, Washington, DC; McClelland, D., 1969. Does Education Accelerate Economic Growth. In: Eckstein, M.A., Noah, H.J. (Eds.), Scientific Investigations in Comparative Education. Macmillan, London], but this link may be limited in systems of education where traditional pedagogic methods have been dominant (such as the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Barbados where underachievement is also associated with lack of participation and low levels of social inclusion skills by teachers: World Bank, 1992. Access, Quality and Efficiency in Caribbean Education: a Regional Study. World Bank, Washington, DC; Kutnick, P., Jules, V., Layne, A., 1997. Gender and School Achievement in the Caribbean. Department for International Development, London). Into traditional classroom contexts in Trinidad and Barbados, a new social pedagogic method was introduced by teachers and changes in attainment and motivation of pupils and attitudes of teachers were assessed over two terms in secondary schools.     

Decentralisation as and for Education Reform in Trinidad and Tobago

Centralisation is the traditional mode of decision‐making in the education system in Trinidad and Tobago, but proposals have now been put forward to decentralise. The purpose of decentralisation, as claimed in the recent Report of the National Task Force on Education, is to improve the quality of education that has been falling for some time, despite significant inputs since political independence about 30 years ago. The article reviews both the proposals made and the problems that are inherent in the concept of decentralisation, and against this background specifies what Trinidad and Tobago might do in order to make its plans for decentralisation work. Why the state has turned to decentralisation at this period in its educational development drive is also critically examined. Findings indicate that the political agenda, and not necessarily immediate concern for quality improvement, is the driving force behind the decentralisation move. The proposals, however, still have a good chance of successful implementation and of achieving the stated goal of quality improvement, but before these can be realised, inputs, among them factors relating to the core technology of teaching and learning as well as training of personnel to undertake implementation, are needed. Some suggestions as to how these might be accomplished are given.     

Performance of students in project‐based science classrooms on a national measure of science achievement

Reform efforts in science education emphasize the importance of supporting students' construction of knowledge through inquiry. Project‐based science (PBS) is an ambitious approach to science instruction that addresses concerns of reformers. A sample of 142 10th‐ and 11th‐grade students enrolled in a PBS program completed the 12th‐grade 1996 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) science test. Compared with subgroups identified by NAEP that most closely matched our student sample, White and middle class, PBS students outscored the national sample on 44% of NAEP test items. This study shows that students participating in a PBS curriculum were prepared for this type of testing. Educators should be encouraged to use inquiry‐based approaches such as PBS to implement reform in their schools. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 39: 410–422, 2002     

Fostering inclusive education: principals' perspectives in Trinidad and Tobago

This paper shares elementary school principals' perspectives from one urban school district in Trinidad and Tobago, regarding factors that might enhance or limit their and/or their faculty's readiness for inclusion in their schools. Qualitative data collection comprised a self-administered questionnaire and focus group interviewing. Respondents comprise 18 school principals. Findings revealed a philosophical readiness to embrace inclusive practice, but resistance towards assuming responsibilities for such students within the classroom. Recommendations to facilitate more effective inclusion hinged upon teacher education, leadership and collaborative practice.     

Everyday personal laptop usage in secondary schools in Trinidad and Tobago

The e-Connect And Learn (eCAL) programme is a Trinidad and Tobago government-led initiative, launched in 2010, that grants personal laptop computers to students entering secondary school. The purpose of this paper is to provide a snapshot of how students are using these government-issued personal laptops 3 years after the programme’s launch. This paper explores the fissure between what the policy recommends and what is actually enacted in the context of laptop usage in the classroom. Data were drawn from 1,451 students, from 32 secondary schools across Trinidad and Tobago. Responses indicate that students are falling short of the expectations for in-class laptop usage and in schools where usage is less often but on a regular basis, laptops are mainly used for technology-related subjects. These findings not only suggest that students’ everyday personal laptop usage in the classroom is not in alignment with the eCAL programme goals, but also highlight some of the issues to be considered by other countries when implementing large-scale laptop programmes.     

Understanding science teaching effectiveness: examining how science-specific and generic instructional practices relate to student achievement in secondary science classrooms

ABSTRACT

In order to create conditions for students’ meaningful and rigorous intellectual engagement in science classrooms, it is critically important to help science teachers learn which strategies and approaches can be used best to develop students’ scientific literacy. Better understanding how science teachers’ instructional practices relate to student achievement can provide teachers with beneficial information about how to best engage their students in meaningful science learning. To address this need, this study examined the instructional practices that 99 secondary biology teachers used in their classrooms and employed regression to determine which instructional practices are predictive of students’ science achievement. Results revealed that the secondary science teachers who had well-managed classroom environments and who provided opportunities for their students to engage in student-directed investigation-related experiences were more likely to have increased student outcomes, as determined by teachers’ value-added measures. These findings suggest that attending to both generic and subject-specific aspects of science teachers’ instructional practice is important for understanding the underlying mechanisms that result in more effective science instruction in secondary classrooms. Implications about the use of these observational measures within teacher evaluation systems are discussed.     

Denominational primary schooling: The case of Trinidad and Tobago

In developing countries, the trend has been for government to assume gradual control of schools run by religious organisations, while allowing them to retain their religious affiliation. In the Caribbean, the relationship between church and state educational systems has generally been cordial. This is particularly so in Trinidad and Tobago, where almost three quarters of the primary schools are denominational: Roman Catholic, other Christian, Hindu and Muslim. However, a significant proportion of pupils do not adhere to the host faith. Demographic trends and internal migration have disturbed the previous pattern of population, but the most important factor is the influence of the Common Entrance Examination, which controls entry to secondary education. Certain primary schools achieve high pass rates and attract large numbers of applicants from all sectors of society, while School Boards and principals accept over-population and set entry criteria other than religious affiliation. Variation in curricula is limited by recently drafted requirements, the government provides the bulk of school funds, and regularly inspects all schools. Such controls may enable the present government to fulfil its intention of deemphasising the Common Entrance Examination, but it thereby runs the risk of endangering the religious tolerance engendered by the present multidenominational nature of religious schools.

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Zusammenfassung In Entwicklungsländern ging das Bestreben der Regierung dahin, allmählich die Kontrolle über die von religiösen Organisationen geführten Schulen zu übernehmen und ihnen dabei ihre religiöse Bindung zu belassen. In der Karibik bestand bisher im allgemeinen ein herzliches Verhätnis zwischen Kirche und staatlichen Erziehungseinrichtungen. Dies gilt besonders für Trinidad und Tobago, wo fast drei Viertel der Grundschulen Konfessionsschulen sind: römisch-katholisch, anderweitig christlich, hinduistisch und moslemisch. Eine große Anzahl von Schülern gehört allerdings nicht der Glaubensrichtung der Schule an. Demografische Trends und Bevölkerungsfluktuation haben frühere Bevölkerungsmuster verändert, aber der wichtigste Punkt ist der Einfluß der allgemeinen Aufnahmeprüfung, die den Eintritt in die weiterführenden Schulen reguliert.Einige Grundschulen haben hohe Erfolgsraten und ziehen dadurch viele Bewerber aus allen Gesellschaftsschichten an, wobei Schulbehörden und Schulleiter eine Überbelegung akzeptieren und andere Aufnahmekriterien als religiöse Zugehörigkeit festsetzen. Änderungsmöglichkeiten im Curriculum sind durch kürzlich herausgegebene Anforderungsrichtlinien eingeschränkt; die Regierung zahlt den größten Teil der Schulmittel und inspiziert regelmäßig alle Schulen. Diese Kontrollen mögen es zwar der gegenwärtigen Regierung ermöglichen, ihre Absicht, die Bedeutung der allgemeinen Aufnahmeprüfung zu schwächen, zu verwirklichen, aber sie riskiert gleichzeitig, die durch die gegenwärtigen multikonfessionellen Religionsschulen ausgelöste religiöse Toleranz zu gefährden.

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Résumé Dans les pays en développement, le gouvernement assume habituellement le contrôle continu des écoles régies par les organisations religieuses, tout en leur permettant de conserver leur adhésion religieuse. Aux Caraïbes, la relation entre les systèmes éducatifs publics et religieux est généralement cordiale. C'est particulièrement le cas à Trinité-et-Tobago, où presque les trois quarts des écoles primaires sont des écoles confessionnelles: catholiques romaines, diverses écoles chrétiennes, écoles hindoues et musulmanes. Cependant, un nombre important d'élèves n'adhère pas à la religion de l'école. Les tendances démographiques et la migration interne ont changé l'ancienne structure de la population, mais le facteur majeur reste l'influence de l'Examen général d'entrée, qui réglemente l'entrée dans le secondaire. Certaines écoles primaires ont un taux de réussite élevé et attirent de nombreux candidats issus de tous les secteurs de la société, tandis que les conseils et les directeurs d'écoles acceptent une surpopulation et fixent d'autres critères d'admission que ceux d'appartenance religieuse. La diversité des programmes d'études est limitée par des contraintes mises en place récemment, le gouvernement octroie l'ensemble des crédits à l'éducation et inspecte régulièrement tous les établissements scolaires. Pareils contrôles peuvent permettre au présent gouvernement d'imposer sa volonté pour diminuer l'importance de l'Examen général d'entrée, mails ils risquent en même temps de mettre en danger la tolérance religieuse engendrée aujourd'hui par la nature multiconfessionnelle des écoles religieuses.

     

Community engagement in the implementation of educational policy in Trinidad and Tobago

Inauguration of double-shift junior secondary schooling in Trinidad and Tobago in 1973 created several problems for local planners, policy makers, parents, and students themselves. In some cases solution has been found, but in others problems have remained defiant and irresolute. In the latter category is the problem of deviant student behaviour during off-shift sessions, believed to be the result of poor student choice regarding the use of time. Recommendations have been made to redress this situation through engagement of community groups. This paper argues that this approach is problematical and contradictory and will not achieve stipulated objectives. The main reason for the gloomy outlook is the principle of decentralization, which must be taken into account in any attempt to engage the local community. Community engagement is examined against certain imperatives of decentralization. The paper concludes, however, that as a strategy, community engagement is doomed to failure. Poor choices by junior secondary school students in the use of their off-shift hours are therefore very likely to persist.     

Supplementary tutoring in Trinidad and Tobago: Some implications for policy making

Globally, private supplementary tutoring is a huge business and the practice is expanding rapidly in many regions of the world where it never existed before. In some of these regions it is posing a novel set of challenges for education planners and policy makers. The aim of this study was to examine the extent to which supplementary tutoring is impacting on the goals of the formal education system in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T). The participation rate in supplementary tutoring at primary school level in T&T was found to be high (88.2 per cent at Standard Five level), with the majority of the students being privately tutored by their regular school teachers. Their main motivation for taking private tutoring lessons was to try to secure a place in one of the few elite secondary schools in the country. The authors of this paper admit that there is no quick solution to the problem, especially if it is understood as a part of the process of cultural change. They contend that the key to breaking the elitist tradition lies in modifying public understanding about education and convincing parents and citizens at large that a wide range of options and opportunities exists outside the narrow confines of the old colonial economy and the old colonial schools.     

Curriculum Convergence: An ethno-historical investigation into schooling in Trinidad and Tobago

Conscious manipulation of the curriculum in order to achieve the goals of colonialism was a principle in schooling in Trinidad and Tobago prior to independent rule. The approach was selective: the state identified and conveniently put into practice certain principles believed to have potential for servicing the colonial ideal. The curriculum domains which provided guidance in the process were mental discipline, child study, social efficiency and humanism, and the indicators gleaned from each of these ideological camps came together at the height of the colonial period and collectively informed curriculum choice and pedagogical practices. An amalgam of curriculum principles and approaches, therefore, rather than any one distinct operational ideology, underpinned practice. The study focuses on the teaching end of the schooling spectrum. It uses an ethno-historical method to identify both curriculum content and pedagogical strategy, determines the ideological provenance of these inputs, and indicates how the colonial state stood to benefit from the choices made. It is argued that the approach used by the colonizer did in fact accomplish some intended outcomes, but in that very feat lies the crucible for many of the difficulties which an independent Trinidad and Tobago now faces in its attempt to develop and implement curricula that are responsive to the emergence into a modern nation state.     

Evaluating the geography of gendered achievement using large-scale assessment data from the primary school system of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

This study analyzed the spatial distribution of gender differentials in Mathematics and Language Arts on national assessments of educational achievement in the primary school system of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. The findings indicate statistically significant medium-sized differences favouring females on Language Arts primarily in the rural regions of east Trinidad and in the island of Tobago and statistically significant, negligible to small differences on Mathematics nationwide. Individual schools reporting medium-sized gender differences were more common in rural, low-performing education districts, where reported poverty was also higher. This pattern of early gendered achievement in language within low-achieving, poor and rural geographic locations points towards the need for placed-based education policies and focused interventions.     

Management and organization in science classrooms

Twenty-six junior high and middle school science classes taught by 13 teachers were observed frequently during the first 2 months of school and during 2 months in the middle of the year to identify classroom management and instructional organization variables related to high levels of student task engagement and low levels of off task and disruptive behavior. Sub-samples of more and less effective managers were identified, and narrative data from their classes were analyzed to describe and illustrate effective strategies for managing science classroom activities.