Alternative approaches to the definition and identification of learning disabilities: Some questions and answers

Recent consensus reports concur in suggesting major changes in the federal regulatory approach to the identification of learning disabilities (LD). These reports recommend abandoning the IQ-discrepancy model and the use of IQ tests for identification, and also recommend incorporation of response to instruction (RTI) as one of the identification criteria. These changes are also recommended to states in the current reauthorization of the U.S. Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA). While not mandatory, states that follow these recommendations will experience major changes in identification and treatment of students served under the LD category. This paper reviews the basis for these recommendations, summarizing four recent consensus group reports on special education that concur in suggesting these changes. Seventeen commonly asked questions about these changes are presented, with responses. In order to ensure adequate instruction for students with LD, it is essential that identification practices focus on assessments that are directly related to instruction, that any services for students who are struggling prioritize intervention over eligibility, and that special education be permitted to focus more on results and outcomes and less on eligibility and process. Identification models that incorporate RTI represent a shift in special education toward the goals of better achievement and behavioral outcomes for students identified with LD, as well as those students at risk for LD. Supported by grants from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, HD25802-13, “Center for the Study of Learning and Attention Disorders” (JMF); and the Office of Special Education Programs: H326Y02002, National Center for Special Education Accountability Monitoring (WAC); H324U010004, National Research Center for Learning Disabilities (DJR), and H324X010013, Preventing Reading Difficulties: A Three-Tiered Intervention Model (SRC). The National Center for Learning Disabilities also provided support for the development of this paper. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be viewed as necessarily representative of others associated with the centers listed or the funding agencies supporting these centers.     

Preferences of students with learning disabilities for alternative service delivery modes

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the preferences of students with learning disabilities regarding the location in which they receive help and the person from whom to get help. The attitudes of students with learning disabilities towards school as a function of the time they spend in the mainstream and their characteristics were also investigated. Results of the structured interviews and survey statements of 150 students indicated that they preferred receiving extra help in the special education class from the special education teacher. Students’ preferences for setting or teacher were not related to age, sex, IQ or academic achievement level, nor to the time students spent in the mainstream. The students expressed a positive attitude towards school in general, and towards their teachers, their classmates and the schoolwork in particular.     

A word identification strategy for adolescents with learning disabilities

Students with learning disabilities frequently experience difficulty on reading tasks. This difficulty is heightened for adolescents with learning disabilities who are responsible for reading and understanding materials written at several grade levels above their reading ability. Word identification becomes an increasingly important skill for these students, especially when confronted with unfamiliar, polysyllabic words. The present study investigated the effects of training 12 adolescents with learning disabilities in a word identification strategy, DISSECT. The results indicated that the strategy was effective in reducing reading errors for all subjects. However, it was found that increases in word identification differentially affected reading comprehension and indicate the need for separate and/or simultaneous attention to comprehension processes.     

Alternative models of learning disabilities identification: considerations and initial conclusions

The final session of the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD) Responsiveness-to-Intervention (RTI) Symposium, "What are alternative models to LD identification other than RTI?" included four papers that discussed concerns over the exclusive reliance on an RTI approach to learning disability identification, considerations for analyzing proposed LD identification models, and various alternatives to LD identification. The work of the participating panelists is summarized in this discussant paper, and next steps for the NRCLD in light of these presentations are suggested.     

Instruction-first and problem-solving-first approaches: alternative pathways to learning complex tasks

According to cognitive load theory, using worked examples is an effective and efficient instructional strategy for initial cognitive skill acquisition for novice learners, as it reduces cognitive load and frees up cognitive resources to build task competence. Contrary to this, productive failure (as well as invention learning, desirable difficulties and other problem-solving-first) frameworks suggest that scaffolded problem-solving activities (a generation phase) preceding explicit instruction enhance learners’ performance. The reported experimental study investigated the effectiveness of different levels of instructional guidance provided to students during the learning phase preceding explicit instruction in standard solution procedures in enhancing students’ engagement and transfer problem-solving skills. Specifically, the study compared partially-guided or unguided attempts at generating problem solutions as opposed to comprehensive guidance, in the form of a worked example. Levels of experienced cognitive load and learner motivation were evaluated in addition to delayed post-test performance scores. There were no differences between the three groups on the transfer post-test outcomes, even though the condition with fully-guided worked examples prior to the explicit instruction expectedly reduced cognitive load relative to the conditions without such guidance. There were also differences between the conditions on some sub-dimensions of the motivation scale. In general, the findings indicate that similar overall outcomes (delayed transfer performance) could be achieved by different sequences of instructional tasks aimed at achieving different sets of specific goals.     

Evidence for unexpected weaknesses in learning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder without reading disabilities

This study examined the mechanisms underlying verbal learning in children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), none of whom had reading disabilities. Children with ADHD were compared to typically developing children on both process and product scores from the California Verbal Learning Test for Children. The findings indicated that children with ADHD initially learned the same number of words as controls but showed weaknesses recalling the words after delays, suggesting that children with ADHD are less efficient learners. Regardless of ADHD status, boys and girls performed differently. Boys used semantic clustering less frequently and recalled fewer words from the middle region of the list than girls; girls also outperformed boys in terms of overall performance, despite lower verbal IQ scores. These findings show that children with ADHD can exhibit unexpected weaknesses in learning even without a formal learning disability. Gender differences in verbal learning are also illustrated.     

Gifted underachievement within a self-regulated learning framework: Proposing a task-dependent model to guide early identification and intervention

Current theoretical and operational definitions of underachievement require that students show sustained suppressed academic achievement. Yet, early detection may allow for effective intervention before underachievement becomes a chronic issue. While existing identification procedures were not designed to detect underachievement before low academic performance occurs, the integration of self-regulated learning (SRL) into these practices may promote earlier identification and intervention. This conceptual paper (a) anchors gifted underachievement within Zimmerman's SRL model, (b) examines existing gifted literature investigating SRL components to demonstrate the benefits of applying an SRL model, and (c) proposes a comprehensive measurement and intervention technique to capture important motivational variables at the task level. By measuring SRL processes and underachievement at a task-specific level, we can target interventions to specific needs, address underachievement before it becomes a persistent problem, and help learners reach their academic potential.     

Factors influencing the identification of black and white students with learning disabilities

This study examined the differential influence of an IQ cutoff and standard score or regression-based method for determining a severe discrepancy as eligibility criteria for the identification of black and white students with learning disabilities. Subjects were 218 white and 132 black students referred for possible learning disability services. The results of the study demonstrated that the use of a standard score method for determining a severe discrepancy and the use of an IQ cutoff above the range for mental retardation resulted in the disproportionate underrepresentation of black students meeting eligibility criteria. In contrast, when a regression-based method to determine a severe discrepancy was used, along with the absence of an IQ cutoff, no differences were discerned between the two groups. The implications of these findings for current practice are discussed.     

Tiers of intervention in responsiveness to intervention: prevention outcomes and learning disabilities identification patterns

Response to Intervention (RTI) models have attracted great attention as an alternative to traditional methods used for identifying students with learning disabilities. A major feature of this approach is the implementation of academic interventions in general education and measuring the student's response to those interventions. A common question that needs to be addressed is the number of stages or tiers of intervention necessary in the Response to Intervention model. This article reviews three studies of RTI that investigate the RTI tiers. Sharon Vaughn and Rollanda O'Connor report on studies using the Standard Protocol approach to RTI. David Tilly reports on using the Problem Solving Model as an RTI model. This article summarizes the results of these three investigations.     

Students with learning disabilities within the context of inclusive education: issues of identification and school management

This paper reports findings of a case study carried out in two elementary mainstream schools in Turkey. The main aim of the study was to investigate the role of identification and school management within the process of educating students with learning disabilities in mainstream schools. Interviews with stakeholders, observations and documentary analysis yielded the following broad themes: (a) referral and identification was often carried out with little consideration of preventive and holistic approaches; (b) identification based on narrow assessment guided the educational content, influenced school climate and teacher practices and (c) school management bodies assumed little responsibility to plan, coordinate and evaluate the education provided to students with learning disabilities. Outcomes of this study can guide good practice and policy regarding identification and school management in Turkey as well as other countries going through similar processes in terms of educating students with learning disabilities in mainstream schools.