The development and application of progressive education in the Netherlands and some implications for South Africa

Abstract

The charge that schooling is poorly adapted to modern conditions in South Africa and abroad has been debated since the beginning of the twentieth century, with the result that two strands of competing paradigms - traditional and progressive - crystallised from the discussion. This article delineates the salient features of progressive education to prepare the ground for a comparison of outcomes-based education (OBE) in South Africa with education in the Netherlands and thereby determine the influence, if any, of progressive education on OBE and Dutch education respectively. The data gathered to determine the progressive influence on Dutch education showed that some elements of progressive education had been combined with traditional (tried-and-tested) practices to create an effective primary educational system. The implication for South Africa is that teachers should be allowed to adapt their teaching styles and curriculum development to accommodate learners who cannot benefit optimally from progressive teaching, and that progressive principles can be implemented in South Africa, provided it is done as in the Netherlands without trying to force everybody into the same mould (i.e., on the crude principle that ‘one size fits all’),     

Half a century of Islamic education in Dutch schools

During the second half of the twentieth century, faithful followers of non-Western religions immigrated into Western European countries. Their children were a challenge for the respective educational system in the host countries. In the Dutch context, the educational system consists of public and private schools in which religion is the most dividing factor. Private schools are largely denominational schools with, as main denominations, Roman Catholics and Protestants, while state schools are presented as religiously neutral. How did this dual system cope with the import of a relatively new religion like Islam? In our contribution, we describe half a century’s history of Islamic children in Dutch schools by addressing the following questions. In what way did state and denominational schools on the one hand and the government on the other hand try to include Islamic pupils (and their parents) and facilitate their integration into the Dutch educational system and by consequence into Dutch society? And, the other way around, how did these new comers adapt themselves to the Dutch educational system, and did they stimulate, directly or indirectly, reflection on religion and values? We come to the conclusion that the most influential initiatives came from both Christian and Islamic schools as a consequence of their focus on the importance of the formation of pupil identity and life orientation and that teachers’ knowledge about and attitude regarding (religious) diversity are pivotal in processes of learning about and from each other as a precondition for integration into a society characterised by diversity.     

CITIZENSHIP AND EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS BOTTOM‐UP TRADITIONS

The author states that, taking into account historical changes and variations, citizenship in the Netherlands mainly developed as a bottom‐up affair. She stresses the structural conditions (geographical: an early and high degree of urbanization, the co‐operative regulation of the waterlevel; social and political: limited forms of a central political authority, a multiplied religious map, pillarization; economic: a highly developed merchant capitalism and a late emergence of industrial capitalism) and points at the special contribution of the Dutch educational system to these processes: the operation along local (urban) lines; the early decline of the relevance of the grammar school (from the sixteenth century on); a curriculum for higher and lower social strata set up from a relatively congruent utilitarian point of view; and a structural transformation of the school system in the late eighteenth, early nineteenth century, starting at the level of elementary education and not just (as in Germany and France) in secondary or tertiary institutions.     

On the Use and Abuse of Great Educators: The Case of Comenius in the Low Countries

This article presents an overview of four centuries of Dutch reactions to the seventeenth‐century educationalist and philosopher J. A. Comenius. Threephases in this reception history are proposed: disregard, denouncement and deification.

After this summary account, the article goes into more detail with a review of two examples of what may be considered as abuses of Comenius’ ideas. Firstly, it reports on the misinterpretation of Comenius by Dutch Pietist Protestants since the seventeenth century. Secondly, it discusses a very recent example of promoting Comenius as a prophet for postmodern times. In this respect, the article may also be read as a plea for the professional academic study of Comenius, in stead of calling him in for some ideological purpose.     

Adult Education between Cultural Assimilation and Structural Integration. Settlement programmes for 'newcomers' in The Netherlands

In The Netherlands, since 1996, 'newcomers', like migrants, refugees and asylum seekers, are obliged to take part in an educational settlement programme which should enable them to gain access to (professional) education and to the labour market. This paper deals with the settlement efforts that are required from adult education on the one hand and newcomers on the other hand, and with the current results and further prospects. We elaborate the central aspects of the settlement policy and its developments, and, drawing on the field theory of Pierre Bourdieu, we analyse the settlement policy and its consequences for adult education as well as newcomers. Then we turn to the two ideologies, cultural assimilation and structural integration, which firmly instigated the (re)formation of the policy, and we relate them to the actual settlement practice. Conclusively, we stipulate three kinds of conditions for a settlement policy that has greater significance for the labour participation of newcomers, and for their integration in Dutch society in general.     

Policy on ethnic segregation in a system of choice: the case of The Netherlands

This paper examines the implications of the uneven distribution of minority pupils and the Dutch system of choice for policies on ethnic segregation at both the local and school level. The analysis is based on a sample of 27 municipalities serving 23% of all Dutch primary school pupils. Segregation to a large extent can be found in The Netherlands as elsewhere, and the constitutional freedom of education is precisely the factor that places important restrictions on solving this problem adequately. At the local level more than one‐third of all municipalities, for various reasons, do not take any action. Of the others that do take action the majority saddles the schools with the responsibility since the problems are mainly seen as of an educational nature. According to the school principals a percentage of minority pupils exceeding 50‐60% causes ‘white’ parents to leave and they are given every opportunity to do so by the Dutch system of free parental choice. Therefore a radical reorientation is required in the Dutch system of choice in order to address the challenges of ethnic segregation.     

从《画室》看17世纪的荷兰

荷兰绘画艺术的繁荣既得益于新教卡尔文教派反对偶像崇拜的教义主张,受益于荷兰经济的推动,又加上继承了尼德兰的民族文化传统,使绘画艺术在荷兰完全摆脱了天主教会、宫廷和贵族的垄断,真正融入荷兰人的日常生活。本文以维米尔代表作《画室》为出发点,以此辐射出17世纪荷兰的宗教、经济、民族文化传统。     

Dropout and Downward Mobility in the Educational Career: An Event-History Anaylsis of Ethnic Schooling Differences in the Netherlands

While many aspects of educational careers have been examined ill the literature on ethnic minorities, such as truancy, turnover and grades, downward mobility has rarely been studied. Using data on more than 10,000 students who entered secondary school in The Netherlands in 1989, we develop an event-history model for secondary school careers and we use this model to analyse the determinants of dropout and downward mobility simultaneously. Our findings show that students from Mediterranean and Caribbean immigrant families are about 3 times as likely to drop out from secondary school without a degree compared to Dutch children. They are also more likely to be downwardly mobile during their secondary school career, but this differential is weaker Compositional differences with respect to individual ability and parental resources explain a large part of these differences. When holding constant parental resources and individual ability, ethnic students are less likely to experience downward mobility than Dutch students. In other words, when there is failure in the school career Dutch children are more likely to follow the route of downward mobility whereas children from ethnic minorities are more likely to drop out altogether. The multitrack nature of the Dutch educational system thus may have a negative impact on ethnic inequality.     

For Religion,Education and Literature: a Comparative Study of Changes in the Strategy and Profile of Traditionally Religious Publishing Houses in Belgium and the Netherlands in the Twentieth Century

This article goes into the history of five originally Catholic and Protestant publishers of Dutch‐language educational literature: Averbode and Davidsfonds of Flanders and Zwijsen, Malmberg and Callenbach of the Netherlands, all still active today. Their original mission was to make a contribution to religion, education and literature. In order to achieve success in this threefold mission, they had to gain recognition from three different types of institutions, namely religious and clerical, pedagogic and literary. The history of the publishing houses is studied by means of a comparative study of three periods, namely the interwar years, the years 1960–1975, and the years 1985–2000. The changing composition of their publishing lists during these three periods was shaped by internal as well as by external factors. The external factors relate to the national dimension, the religious dimension and changing pedagogic practices, for example new education policies involving the introduction of new teaching methods and learning goals. Internal factors relate to the policy and strategy of the publishing houses themselves. The threefold religious, educational and literary mission evolved in different directions. During the periods studied, acquisitions and reorganizations led to expansion, forcing the publishing houses to reposition themselves in relation to other partners in the publishing market. The merger of the Flemish publishing houses Davidsfonds and Infodok in 1991 not only resulted in a larger company but also clearly influenced the ideological position of the new company. Something similar happened in the Netherlands. In 1964, Malmberg acquired the list of the former Haarlem publishing house De Spaarnestad, and became part of Verenigde Nederlandse Uitgeversbedrijven (United Dutch Publishers, VNU). The Zwijsen list was extended in 1991 when Elzenga became an imprint, and in 1992 Zwijsen became part of the Weekbladpers Groep. Callenbach also lost its independence in 1998 when it became part of J. H. Kok. Each of the five publishing houses was involved in different processes of change between 1900 and 2000, due to the internal and external factors mentioned above. The successions of strategic decisions that had to be taken meant that each house evolved in a different direction. This study traces the development of their profiles during the course of the twentieth century, using several sources including the publishers’ lists. Changes in the structure of the lists can be closely monitored through the catalogues and other information issued every year. Announcements of new titles and advertisements in the daily and weekly press were a further source of information. Publications available in archives or libraries were also used to reconstruct the lists. The theoretical framework of the study consists of the polysystem and field theories on the development of publishing houses, and theories of pillarization and depillarization in order to explain the religious factor.     

Disabled Learners in South Asia: lessons from the past for educational exporters

South Asia's historical heritage of ideas and practices for educating children with special needs contains many of the approaches that western teachers discovered independently in the past 150 years. These include close observation of children's current abilities, adjusting the curriculum to individual needs, valuing the social benefits even where intellectual progress is weak, allowing more time for learning, using specially designed materials, educating children with disabilities in ordinary schools, and providing role models of adult achievers who have disabilities. These approaches are here illustrated with stories from ancient India and educational documents from the British Raj. The cultural heritage has largely been ignored during the inflow of western educational ideas to South Asia. Some of the simpler approaches were displaced by the growing professionalisation of special education in the late 19th century. Casual integration of children with mild and moderate disabilities is still obscured in modern integration debates. To facilitate exchanges on a basis of mutual respect and reciprocity, the cultural and conceptual riches of South Asia's educational history must be rediscovered.     

Ideological alchemy: the transmutation of South African didactics (and fundamental pedagogics) into ‘apartheid education’

In his response to Krüger, Le Grange claims that: (1) the South African discourse of fundamental pedagogics was closely allied with Christian National Education and functioned as a powerful educational doctrine in the service of the South African policy of apartheid education; (2) fundamental pedagogics bracketed political discourse; (3) the connection between fundamental pedagogics and Christianity promoted an authoritarian approach to education; and (4) because didactic pedagogics and fundamental pedagogics were so intimately intertwined, South African didactic thinking also was used to serve and perpetuate the policy of apartheid education. This paper evaluates these claims and concludes that they are untenable in light of the history, nature, and purpose of South African fundamental and didactic pedagogical thinking. In his effort to link fundamental and didactic pedagogical thinking to apartheid education, Le Grange has lost sight of the profound influence of the tradition of European (Dutch/German) Didaktik on didactic thought in South Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.     

Institutionalising campus diversity in South African higher education: Review of diversity scholarship and diversity education

Increasingly the social, educational, cultural,linguistic, religious and racial diversity ofSouth African society is finding expressionwithin South African institutions of highereducation. Consequently, ``diversity'',``diversity issues'' and ``diversification'', havebecome part of the education debate and policy,and pose new challenges to South Africantertiary institutions. Most institutions areattempting to respond to these challengeswithin the context of a transformation processwhich impacts on every aspect of academic lifefrom student access and support, outreachprogrammes, staff recruitment and retention, toacademic programme development, research,scholarship and the social and learningenvironment on campus. This paper looks at howSouth African higher education institutionshave met these challenges. It highlights howthe ideas, initiatives or practices arounddiversity have been appropriated and made partof the mainstream intellectual and academicdiscourses. It also investigates the social andepistemological conditions of possibility formeaningful scholarship and curriculum practicesin addressing the challenges posed by socialdiversity on campuses. More specific questionsin this regard include: What counts asknowledge in diversity scholarship? Whoproduces and disseminates it? Who accesses itor utilises it? What is its space in thecurricula?     

关于李大钊论历史学性质问题的探析

历史学的学科性质,是艺术,还是科学?在20世纪初期,中国史学家就这一问题展开讨论,李大钊很早就开始关注与思考这一史学理论中最基本而且很重要的理论问题。在近代中国,李大钊是对于历史学的学科性质问题论述较早,也较为成熟的史学家。李大钊关于历史学特有性质的论述,是他史学思想中的一个重要内容。否认历史学不具有科学性的一些人,往往是从否认历史发展无规律可循立论的。李大钊关于历史学性质的论述也是对这一不正确的认识的积极回应。李大钊坚定地指出:"史学之当为一种科学,在今日已无疑义。"李大钊在坚持历史学的学科性质是科学的同时,也承认在具体的历史研究过程中存在艺术性的工作。历史学研究含有艺术性的工作和历史学是艺术是两回事。历史研究中所体现的这种艺术性是工作层面的事情,并不等同于学科层面。     

Languages,development and reconstructing education in South Africa

The educational crisis in South Africa is examined against the history of language-in-education policy over the last 25 years. The Soweto student revolt in 1976 is identified as a pivotal point, resulting in educational responses which have exacerbated academic failure amongst the majority of school students.The vexed role of African languages in education, vis-à-vis structural constraints, including international `aid', across the continent is discussed as a textured background from which innovative South African educators have had an opportunity to take cognisance.The argument in this article is that curriculum and language-in-education policy changes which came into force in 1997, whilst based on the goal of an equitable school system, are unfortunately flawed both in the conceptualisation process and implementation strategy. The role of African languages, despite policy statements to the contrary, is not adequately addressed.Suggestions which are influenced by developments elsewhere on the continent are offered as alternatives to reconstructing viable education in the country.     

Cultural Values and Social Differentiation: The Catholic pillar and its education system in Belgium and the Netherlands

According to research on 'pillarization', some European countries (such as Belgium and the Netherlands) are internally divided into blocs of different religious and political persuasions. In this article, it is indicated that the success of the pillars has never been unambiguous. In domains of professional services, like education and health care, the pillars were successful. Other societal sectors, which function more impersonally, could escape from their influence. Pillars could flourish in societal sectors, whose functioning depends on face-to-face contacts. This explains why 'religious virtuosos' were able to fulfil such a prominent role in the Catholic pillar, and especially in Catholic education.     

Teacher Evaluation in The Netherlands and its Relationship to Educational Effectiveness Research

In this article, we describe the history, current practice and future of teacher evaluation in The Netherlands. After a short introduction describing the Dutch educational system, we present information about teacher evaluation practices performed by persons outside the school (the Inspectorate) and inside the school (the principal). We then pay attention to the progress of teacher and school effectiveness research in The Netherlands and the relatively weak links between research and evaluation practices in schools. Finally, we outline some potential future developments in the field of teacher evaluation in The Netherlands.     

Science mapping the knowledge base on educational leadership and management in Africa, 1960–2018

ABSTRACT

This review of research employed science mapping to analyse the intellectual structure of the knowledge base on educational leadership and management in Africa. The review analysed 645 Scopus-indexed documents on EDLM in Africa published between 1960 and 2018. Meta data associated with these documents were analysed using the VOSviewer software. The complementary use of citation and co-citation analysis determined that 95% of the African literature in EDLM has been published since 2000. Geographical distribution of African scholarship was highly skewed with South African scholarship accounting for 74% of the corpus. Citations analyses also identified highly cited scholars and documents within this literature. Analysis of the intellectual structure of the African EDLM knowledge base identified four main Schools of Thought. Three of these were comprised primarily of Africa-based scholarship and determined to be 'distinctively African' in terms of topical foci. The ‘research front’ or most current topical trend in this literature concerns leadership for educational and social transformation. Recommendations are made for building capacity among African EDLM scholars as well as for next steps in advancing the literature.