基于认知负荷理论的“大学物理”教学

约翰·斯威勒提出的认知负荷理论,主张合理分配认知资源,对有效学习至关重要。如果教师在设计教学时能按照认知负荷理论,尽量减少学习任务中不必要的认知负荷,有助于提高教学的效果。因此,提出基于认知负荷理论的大学物理教学,可以通过物理知识的图表化、优化多媒体教学、融入物理学史等手段,管理内在认知负荷,降低外在认知负荷,增加相关认知负荷,以此减少学生的学习障碍,激发学生的学习兴趣,从而最终达到促进有效学习的目的。     

Chemistry problem solving instruction: a comparison of three computer-based formats for learning from hierarchical network problem representations

Within the cognitive load theory framework, we designed and compared three alternative instructional solution formats that can be derived from a common static hierarchical network representation depicting problem structure. The interactive-solution format permitted students to search in self-controlled manner for solution steps, static-solution format displayed all solutions steps, and no-solution format did not have solution steps. When we matched instructional time across the formats, in relation to the complex molarity problems rather than the dilution problems, differential transfer performance existed between the static-solution or no-solution formats and the interactive-solution format, but not between the static-solution format and no-solution format. The manner in which learners interact with the static-solution and no-solution formats depends on their level of expertise in the chemistry domain. With considerable learner expertise, provision of solution steps may be redundant incurring extraneous cognitive load. Absence of the solution steps may not have left sufficient cognitive capacity for germane cognitive load as some beginning learners lacked the prior knowledge to deduce the solution steps. Searching for solution steps presumably incurred extraneous cognitive load which interfered with learning and hence, in the interactive-solution format, it outweighed the benefit of engaging in self-regulated interaction with the content. Hence, cognitive load theory is a promising tool to predict the mental load associated with learning from the three alternative computer-based instructional formats.     

梅耶多媒体教学设计原理的生成与架构

多媒体学习理论是一个贯通了学习理论与教学理论的科学体系。作为学习理论的多媒体学习认知理论基于双重编码理论、工作记忆模型以及生成加工理论,解释了学习者通过加工语词与画面所呈现的材料来建构知识的学习机制,属于解释性理论;作为教学理论的多媒体教学设计理论发展出一系列教学设计应遵循的原则,为教育实践提供了具有处方性意义的行动指南,属于处方性理论。解释性的学习理论为处方性的教学理论提供了扎实可靠的科学基础。在多媒体学习研究从学习理论向教学理论转化的过程中,多媒体教学设计理论是实现跃迁的关键环节,而认知负荷理论则是理论跃迁成功的关键变量。基于认知负荷理论,梅耶提出多媒体学习认知负荷三元模型,包括必要认知加工、外来认知加工和生成性认知加工。围绕这三类认知加工,梅耶及其同事进行了大量的实验研究,最终确定了12项与多媒体学习认知理论及其前提假设保持高度逻辑一贯性的多媒体教学设计原则。这些原则都是经得起实践检验的,但教学设计人员在应用的过程中,应明确各项原则的问题情境、适用范围等边际条件。     

Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design

Cognitive load theory has been designed to provide guidelines intended to assist in the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. The theory assumes a limited capacity working memory that includes partially independent subcomponents to deal with auditory/verbal material and visual/2- or 3-dimensional information as well as an effectively unlimited long-term memory, holding schemas that vary in their degree of automation. These structures and functions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel instructional procedures based on the assumption that working memory load should be reduced and schema construction encouraged. This paper reviews the theory and the instructional designs generated by it.     

Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Load Theory, Four-Component Instructional Design, and Self-Directed Learning

This article explores the opportunities to apply cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design to self-directed learning. Learning tasks are defined as containing three elements: learners must (a) perform the tasks, (b) assess their task performance, and (c) select future tasks for improving their performance. Principles to manage intrinsic and extraneous load for performing learning tasks, such as simple-to-complex ordering and fading-guidance strategies, are also applicable to assessing performance and selecting tasks. Moreover, principles to increase germane load, such as high variability and self-explanation prompts, are also applicable to assessment and selection. It is concluded that cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design provide a solid basis for a research program on self-directed learning.     

COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY AND THE ACQUISITION OF COMPLEX COGNITIVE SKILLS IN THE ELDERLY: TOWARDS AN INTEGRATIVE FRAMEWORK

The purpose of this article is to explore the advantages of instructional formats based on cognitive load theory for elderly learners engaged in the acquisition of complex cognitive skills. A great body of research has demonstrated that cognitive aging is accompanied by a reduction of working - memory capacity, a general slowing of mental processes, and a decline of the ability to repress irrelevant information. The core idea of cognitive load theory is that working - memory capacity is limited and should therefore be managed with great care and discretion. Cognitive load theory claims that this can be achieved by minimizing the level of extraneous cognitive load, which is the portion of load that does not contribute to schema acquisition, and by maximizing the level of germane cognitive load, which directly contributes to the construction of cognitive schemata. Since instructions based on cognitive load theory deal with cognitive limitations, in that they lead to an efficient use of the available resources, it was hypothesized that they are especially effective when elderly people are involved. This idea was analyzed by means of a framework merging cognitive load theory with the aforementioned research findings concerning cognitive aging. It was concluded that cognitive load theory, enabling elderly people to acquire new complex skills, can be regarded as an essential guide for educational gerontology.     

When Traditional Won't Do: Experiences from a “Lower-Level” Mathematics Classroom

High school teachers who engage students through active learning in their classrooms can more fully understand this instructional practice by examining the theories and strategies underlying the cognitive perspective of educational psychology, which addresses the development of knowledge in the individual mind. Two theoretical explanations, psychological constructivism and information processing, promote learning as a constructive process that can be aided by strategies such as activating prior knowledge, chunking, elaborating, and invoking a schema. High school teachers can use these cognitive active learning strategies in classroom instruction or incorporate them into out-of-class assignments to increase students engagement in their learning.     

Enhancing transfer by learning generalized domain knowledge structures

Transferring one’s knowledge in new situations is usually associated with cognitively demanding processes. The paper explores an approach to facilitating transfer of knowledge by explicitly instructing learners in medium-level generalized but yet domain-connected knowledge structures that are applicable to a broader range of tasks in the domain and could be essential in managing the cognitive load associated with transfer. The paper includes a theoretical analysis of the potential role of the generalized domain knowledge in transfer and an experimental study designed to investigate the effectiveness of explicit instruction in a generalized domain knowledge structure (function–process–structure schema) in technical areas. Forty-nine undergraduate university students with low or no prior knowledge in the domain participated in the randomised 2 (schema-based vs. non-schema-based instruction)?×?2 (general-to-specific vs. specific-to-general knowledge sequences) experiment investigating the effects of these two factors on posttest transfer performance and subjective ratings of learning difficulty (interpreted as indicators of cognitive load). The results indicated a significant (p?<?0.05) main effect of schema-based instruction; a possible trend (p?<?0.1) favouring general-to-specific instructional sequence for posttest test performance; and a significant interaction between the two factors for ratings of difficulty. The paper concludes that (a) transfer within a domain could be facilitated by explicitly instructing learners in generalized domain schemas; (b) general-to-specific approach could possibly be used as a preferred instructional sequence for enhancing transfer; and (c) cognitive load perspective could add some valid arguments to explain the role of generalized domain knowledge in transfer.     

Neuroimaging of cognitive load in instructional multimedia

This paper reviews research literature on cognitive load measurement in learning and neuroimaging, and describes a mapping between the main elements of cognitive load theory and findings in functional neuroanatomy. It is argued that these findings may lead to the improved measurement of cognitive load using neuroimaging. The paper describes how current measures of cognitive load cannot accurately show the distinction between different types of cognitive load in different learning conditions, and existing approaches to cognitive load assessment are limited in terms of their precision and methodology. A literature review discusses the conceptual framework of Sweller's [Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction 4, 295-312; Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. Camberwell, Australia: ACER Press] cognitive load theory, and describes various approaches to load measurement and their limitations. The paper then describes how the core components of cognitive load - intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load - may be observable using neuroimaging techniques, and argues for the exploration of new links between education research and neuroscience.     

教学视频中线索类型与学习者先前知识经验对学习的交互影响

教学视频因其多通道展现教学内容的特性而成为数字化学习资源的首选形态。线索作为教学视频中的重要引导性教学设计手段,探究其类型及学习者先前知识经验对学习效果的交互影响,有益于优化教学视频的设计策略。基于学习者先前知识经验水平(高水平和低水平)和线索类型(言语线索和视觉线索)两个维度,运用眼动追踪技术和认知负荷、学习满意度、学习效果等测量工具,通过实验考察二者对学习的影响及其内在机制后发现:学习者先前知识经验水平对认知负荷的影响显著;线索类型对学习满意度的影响显著,且线索类型与学习者先前知识经验水平在学习满意度上的交互效应显著;学习者先前知识经验水平对学习效果的影响显著,且线索类型与学习者先前知识经验水平在迁移测验成绩上的交互效应显著。实验结果表明,线索类型与学习者先前知识经验水平对学习满意度和学习效果存在明显的交互作用,即只有低知识经验水平学习者在学习含有视觉线索的教学视频后,学习满意度与学习效果才有显著提升。这可能是由于该类学习者在信息选择时存在困难,视觉线索可以帮助其提高信息搜索效率,而言语线索却会使其认知负荷超载。     

Optimising worked example instruction: Different ways to increase germane cognitive load

Worked examples are an effective instructional means to teach complex problem-solving skills. It has been argued that worked examples decrease extraneous load, enabling more Working Memory (WM) resources to be directed to activities that facilitate learning and transfer performance. Hence, cognitive load research has started to shift its focus towards finding instructional techniques that impose a germane cognitive load by stimulating the allocation of WM resources to such activities. This special issue provides an overview of recent experimental research on ways to further optimise the design and delivery of worked examples in order to foster learning and transfer.     

Instruction-first and problem-solving-first approaches: alternative pathways to learning complex tasks

According to cognitive load theory, using worked examples is an effective and efficient instructional strategy for initial cognitive skill acquisition for novice learners, as it reduces cognitive load and frees up cognitive resources to build task competence. Contrary to this, productive failure (as well as invention learning, desirable difficulties and other problem-solving-first) frameworks suggest that scaffolded problem-solving activities (a generation phase) preceding explicit instruction enhance learners’ performance. The reported experimental study investigated the effectiveness of different levels of instructional guidance provided to students during the learning phase preceding explicit instruction in standard solution procedures in enhancing students’ engagement and transfer problem-solving skills. Specifically, the study compared partially-guided or unguided attempts at generating problem solutions as opposed to comprehensive guidance, in the form of a worked example. Levels of experienced cognitive load and learner motivation were evaluated in addition to delayed post-test performance scores. There were no differences between the three groups on the transfer post-test outcomes, even though the condition with fully-guided worked examples prior to the explicit instruction expectedly reduced cognitive load relative to the conditions without such guidance. There were also differences between the conditions on some sub-dimensions of the motivation scale. In general, the findings indicate that similar overall outcomes (delayed transfer performance) could be achieved by different sequences of instructional tasks aimed at achieving different sets of specific goals.     

Exploring the Impact of Prior Knowledge and Appropriate Feedback on Students' Perceived Cognitive Load and Learning Outcomes: Animation-based earthquakes instruction

The aim of this study was to develop an animation-based curriculum and to evaluate the effectiveness of animation-based instruction; the report involved the assessment of prior knowledge and the appropriate feedback approach, for the purpose of reducing perceived cognitive load and improving learning. The curriculum was comprised of five subunits designed to teach the ‘Principles of Earthquakes.’ Each subunit consisted of three modules: evaluation of prior knowledge with/without in-time feedback; animation-based instruction; and evaluation of learning outcomes with feedback. The 153 participants consisted of 10th grade high-school students. Seventy-eight students participated in the animation-based instruction, involving assessment of prior knowledge and appropriate feedback mechanism (APA group). A total of 75 students participated in animation-based learning that did not take into account their prior knowledge (ANPA group). The effectiveness of the instruction was then evaluated by using a Science Conception Test (SCT), a self-rating cognitive load questionnaire (CLQ), as well as a structured interview. The results indicated that: (1) Students' perceived cognitive load was reduced effectively through improving their prior knowledge by providing appropriate feedback. (2) When students perceived lower levels of cognitive load, they showed better learning outcome. The result of this study revealed that students of the APA group showed better performance than those of the ANPA group in an open-ended question. Furthermore, students' perceived cognitive load was negatively associated with their learning outcomes.     

Taming a beast of burden – On some issues with the conceptualisation and operationalisation of cognitive load

Research on cognitive load theory (CLT) has not yet provided facet-specific measures of cognitive load. The lack of valid methods to measure intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load makes it difficult to empirically test theoretical explanations of effects caused by manipulations of instructional designs. This situation also imposes challenges to testing CLT as a theory. This paper critically reflects the conceptualisation of CLT's core concept and the implications for its operationalisation. In order to address some of the challenges we propose a complexity framework that allows the derivation of a priori estimates of mental load that go beyond CLT's notion of element interactivity. In a study we test hypotheses with regard to effects of the variation of sources for intrinsic cognitive load (increase of complexity within tasks) and the variation of sources for extraneous cognitive load (reduction of extraneous cognitive load between tasks) in three ability groups. Complexity-based estimates prove superior to element interactivity-based estimates of mental load in the prediction of performance outcomes. Results also indicate that individual differences in information-processing capacity determine to what extent complexity is reflected as cognitive load. In this respect the proposed framework extends the focus of CLT beyond the discussion of the role of prior knowledge and acquired levels of expertise.     

Investigation of the impact of two verbal instruction formats and prior knowledge on student learning in a simulation-based learning environment

This study investigated how the format of verbal instructions in computer simulations and prior knowledge (PK) affected 8th graders' cognitive load (CL) level and achievement in a multimedia learning environment. Although PK was not found to significantly affect student performance and CL level, instruction format was found to impact both. Students who used narrative simulations were found to have a greater CL but also to perform better than those using simulations with on-screen text instructions. However, no significant differences were found between the cognitive efficiency of the two groups. The difficulty of the subject matter and limitations in students' prior content-related knowledge may have increased the intrinsic CL, such that students had difficulty in interpreting the content even if their PK was relatively high. The narrative instructions were more likely than the on-screen text information to reduce the extraneous CL and promote understanding of content. A new measure of cognitive processing is needed to identify the types of CL involved in e-learning and determine the properties of adequate e-learning materials. Finally, the findings of the study are discussed and suggestions for future studies and instructional design are provided.     

Expertise reversal for different forms of instructional designs in dynamic visual representations

The recent advances in software and computer technology have enabled the incorporation of dynamic representations into a multitude of educational and training environments. Cognitive load theory has been extensively used to enhance learning from complex dynamic representations by providing appropriate instructional designs to manage learner cognitive load. The available evidence, however, indicates that the suggested instructional designs that are effective for novice learners can reverse and become ineffective for learners with higher levels of prior knowledge. This phenomenon is called the expertise reversal effect. This paper reviews a series of recent experimental studies that have found interactions between levels of learners' organized knowledge structures (endogenous support) and effectiveness of different instructional designs (exogenous support), leading to the expertise reversal effect. It is argued that adapting instructional designs to learners with different amount of prior knowledge is a crucial part of effective learning.     

Self-explanation in the domain of statistics: an expertise reversal effect

This study investigated the effects of four instructional methods on cognitive load, propositional knowledge, and conceptual understanding of statistics, for low prior knowledge students and for high prior knowledge students. The instructional methods were (1) a reading-only control condition, (2) answering open-ended questions, (3) answering open-ended questions and formulating arguments, and (4) studying worked-out examples of the type of arguments students in the third group had to formulate themselves. The results indicate that high prior knowledge students develop more propositional knowledge of statistics than low prior knowledge students. With regard to conceptual understanding, the results indicate an expertise reversal effect: low prior knowledge students learn most from studying worked-out examples, whereas high prior knowledge students profit most from formulating arguments. Thus, novice students should be guided into the subject matter by means of worked-out examples. As soon as students have developed more knowledge of the subject matter, they should be provided with learning tasks that stimulate students to solve problems by formulating arguments.     

英国文学多媒体教学手段中的认知负荷调节

认知负荷理论把工作记忆的限制性看作学习的主要障碍。在英国文学课程教学内容的内在认知负荷相对固定的前提下,应该在多媒体教学手段的设计和使用中减少外在认知负荷,增加相关认知负荷,从而改善学习效果。     

The use of schema theory in the design of instructional materials: A physics example

What are the implications of cognitive science for the design of instructional materials given its central concern with meaningful learning? This question was addressed during an attempt to improve the quality of learning in an introductory non-calculus college physics course where a major intellectual problem that many students face is the development of a coherent view of the information provided to them. The absence of a conceptual framework may contribute to the rapid loss of information often observed among many students shortly after their taking a test. Lack of a conceptual framework also may account for the frequent use of trial-and-error approaches to using formulae. This report cites the use of schema theory for the development of a generative schema or a set of schemas that could be used by students to integrate all of the physics content, and for the design of a means for representing and teaching the schema(s) in a set of instructional materials.