Commercial civil society: A perspective on private higher education in China

Two distinctive paradigms have been used in researching higher education phenomena in China’s process of social transformation. The first might be described as “critical realist,” and the second as “interpretivist.” The book Portraits of 21st Century Chinese Universities: In the Move to Mass Higher Education, has inclined toward the second paradigm and a central concept is that of “civil society.” However, the authors of this article argue that the concept of “commercial civil society” may better explain the characteristics of Chinese private higher education. Different from civil society that is based on voluntary action and contributions, commercial civil society is characterized by profit making behavior. This article focuses on analyzing the profit making features of Chinese private higher education, and thus aims to supplement the interpretivist analysis presented in the book. The authors believe that the concept of “commercial civil society” not only reflects certain features of the social environment in which Chinese private higher education operates, but may also be helpful for analyzing private higher education phenomena in other countries.     

Opinions on computing education in Korean K-12 system: higher education perspective

The need for computing education in the K-12 curriculum has grown globally. The Republic of Korea is not an exception. In response to the need, the Korean Ministry of Education has announced an outline for software-centric computing education in the K-12 system, which aims at enhancing the current computing education with software emphasis. In this paper, we review the outline from a higher education perspective and provide insights into its constructive improvement based on our experience in computer science education in higher education and a study of global initiatives on computing education. We also consider the social environment for computing education in Korea. In the proposed implementation, we first discuss goals for software-centric computing education and identify areas of focus. The identified areas are discussed in terms of topics to be covered and appropriate exposure of knowledge depth in the three levels in the Korean K-12 system. We then discuss necessary preparations for the success of the plan from academic, governmental and social perspectives.     

Teacher education reform in Europe: the case of Norway; trends and tensions in a global perspective

This article focuses on teacher education reforms and related discourses. Internationally, the last decade has been an intensive period of educational reforms and restructuring, particularly regarding teacher education. Even though teacher education in Europe has a high degree of complexity and variations, common trends in the reforms are identifiable. The article deals with trends and tensions in teacher education reforms examining Norwegian teacher education as a “case” within Europe. As an analytical tool, the term “warrants”, interpreted as “reasonable grounds” for actions, is used together with our own analytical categories to capture trends in teacher education in a global perspective. One conclusion is that we can see the impact of the new global market orientation in the national discourses on teacher education.     

中国与外高加索三国跨境高等教育合作刍议

外高加索三国,是“一带一路”经济带中线的必经区域,已成为“一带一路”背景下连接亚欧大陆的重要沿线国家。在双边经贸合作的带动下,中国与外高加索三国开展跨境高等教育合作,能增进彼此之间的了解,也能为加快推进“一带一路”和不同领域的合作提供良好氛围。当前,中国与外高加索三国的跨境高等教育合作,缺少高水平大学的参与,合作办学缺乏规模化和层次性,办学质量水平较低,需要给予高度重视,并探索多样化的合作办学模式,提升办学合作的层次水平,培养各类国际化的人才,以便更好地服务于“一带一路”建设。     

Converge or not converge: the European Union and higher education policies in the Netherlands,Belgium/Flanders and Germany

This article examines the impact of European integration on higher education policies of the Netherlands, Belgium/Flanders and Germany. The analysis of higher education policies in the three countries is part of a broader project, which focuses on a majority of E.U. member states. The selection of the three countries for this paper is not based on any methodological considerations. The question addressed is if higher education policies of member states are converging, diverging or not changing at all, and whether such developments are a consequence of the policies of the European Union (E.U.) or of other factors (e.g., the globalization of the market or of institutions imitating each other). A preliminary assessment leads to the conclusion that a number of important indications of convergence are present in national policy arrangements in the field of higher education (in particular student mobility and quality assurance, but less in the structure of higher education systems My attention will be focused on the structure of higher education systems, on quality assurance and on student and teacher mobility. These domains appear to cover most relevant issues pertaining to higher education policies in the European Union member states (funding of higher education is sometimes considered as a separate domain, but it can also be regarded as an element of the structure of higher education systems, while it is also related to the issue of quality assurance).). The European Union, however, does not have much legal authority in the policy sector in question. Thus, an explanation for converging national policies may lie elsewhere, in part in the concept of “institutional isomorphism”.     

当代美国高等教育研究理念

当代美国高等教育研究理念主要包括“学术资本主义”、“学术资本主义与新经济”、“大学的企业性”、“全球一体化与社区学院”、“知识和金钱对研究型大学的影响”和“大学的组织转型”等。这些理念对高等教育实践具有解释作用,对决策人员具有参考、引导作用,对高等教育行政管理人员具有指导作用。这些理念的应用有一定限度。     

The internationalization of higher education in Japan in the 1990s: A reconsideration

This article focuses on the processof internationalization of higher education inJapan since 1995 from two main points of view:1) the improved quality and efficiency ofuniversity education and 2) the increasedopenness to students from any background. Governmental initiatives, intended to increasethe number of international students, alsoenabled drastic changes in financial and humanresource allocations at both national andinstitutional levels. Individual institutionshave been strongly influenced by theseinitiatives and some have actively utilizedinternationalization as a way to enrich theiruniversity education. Equal opportunity foruniversity admission has not been fully securedfor ethnic minorities residing in Japan. Themeaning of internationalization should be nowconsidered from a broader perspective.     

Institutional attention to European policy agendas: exploring the relevance of instrumental and neo-institutional explanations

This article addresses how European policy initiatives in higher education, research and innovation are diffused in the European higher education research and education area. Based on an instrumental and an institutional perspective, specific expectations are developed as to how policy diffusion might unfold, and, through an in-depth analysis of the strategic plans of 19 higher education institutions in Latvia and Norway, the article identifies factors that potentially mediate European policies into the strategic agenda of universities and colleges. The findings show that European Union membership and policy area seems to matter for the attention given to European policy initiatives, while administrative capacity at institutional level have less or quite mixed effects. The article concludes that both instrumental and institutional perspectives are of value in explaining how European policy diffusion takes place.

     

Social purposes in search of higher education,or higher education in search of social purposes?

The paper begins by discussing the difficulties of formulating coherent social purposes, with particular attention to the relationship between social purposes and the “inner citadel” of higher education's intrinsic values. A detailed examination is then made of social purposes which have come to the fore in the transition from elite to mass higher education: equality and expansion, in which the importance of higher education as a political phenomenon is emphasised; “hard” vocationalism, the matching of educational content to the skills needed for effective job performance; continuing education (an issue linked to these two social purposes); “soft” vocationalism, which is concerned with abilities highly valued in job performance which are also highly valued in the well-educated person; moral development; and “higher education as society's powerhouse”. The paper concludes by suggesting that however much higher education is implicated in society, it may have to continue to exist in active tension with society if academic ideals are to be self-perpetuating.     

The rise and fall of the private sector in Portuguese higher education

The steering and regulation of Continental European higher education systems remains, in general, dominated by State authorities. However, recent developments in public administration and finance have produced some changes in the traditional role of the State as the sole provider of funding and central regulator for higher education institutions. The idea of a “market” for higher education has also been used, in many countries only in a rhetorical way, but in other countries some market-like mechanisms are actually being employed by governments in order to increase the efficiency and the responsiveness of universities and colleges to societal demands. In Portugal, a very large private sector of higher education has been allowed to develop. By analysing the governmental policies vis-à-vis its results, we arrive at the conclusion that, despite this very large private sector, no “real” market has emerged, and that the simultaneous lack of efficient State regulation has resulted in a situation of deep crisis for the sector.     

Dimensions of higher education and the public good in South Africa

The focus is on the micro-possibilities of student capabilities formation as the end of public-good higher education, rather than on a systems or organizations approach more commonly found in discussions of the public good and higher education. This does not discount other valuable public-good ends. Using South Africa as a global South context, a capability-based approach to the public good of higher education is proposed for its humanizing ethic, attention to fair opportunities, and participation in terms of what students are able to do and to be in and through higher education. A capability frame is complemented by thinking about decoloniality and epistemic justice to help identify central higher education capabilities. The three proposed intersecting capability dimensions are as follows: personhood self-formation, epistemic contribution, and sufficiency of economic resources, intended to guide university practices and policy interventions in the direction of the public good. By populating the space of the public good with capabilities, a shift is made away from micro-economics which see the public good as a reductionist space of commodities and human capital development. Higher education is rather understood as having both instrumental and intrinsic value, generating an alternative logic to that of neo-liberalism, and an individualist ontology of competition and untrammeled markets. The pressures of the global context are acknowledged so that the public good is understood as both “ideal-aspirational” but also “practical-feasible” in the light of local South African conditions. An expanded capability-based framing would contribute to reducing higher education inequalities as a public-good and public-accountable contribution by universities.     

Ping Pong: competing leadership for reform in EU higher education 1998–2006

How effective is EU cooperation in higher education? This article treats the issue as one of effectiveness in policy-making. What are the policy ideas which the EU wishes to feed into a policy domain where it has to operate largely through political cooperation and a modest degree of incentive funding? What outcomes are possible? The question is of interest since Europe has two processes which aim for a better regional integration of higher education in order to boost the quality of European higher education and to make a global impact. These are the world- famous Bologna Process and the EU process to drive Europe's universities to make better use of their interlinked roles of education, research and innovation, part of a larger strategy (EU 2020, Lisbon) for European Union growth to support employment, productivity and social cohesion. Building on the theoretical insights of an institutionalist literature concerned with the dynamics of European policy-making in the knowledge domain (Maassen & Olsen, 2007; Gornitzka, 2006, 2010) and complementary theories of historical institutionalism (Pierson, 2003, Thelen, 2003) and agenda setting (Kingdon, 1995), this article examines policy-making on higher education cooperation in the European arena since the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992. It seeks answers to two questions. Why did the Bologna Process dominate the agenda from 1999 to 2004? How did the European Commission acquire the power to shape the issue of European higher education cooperation? Rejecting simple spillover explanations, it theorises in terms of policy entrepreneurship why the EU has latterly been effective in shaping European cooperation in higher education.     

Grade inflation in higher education: A comparative study

Recent research in higher education has exposed and documented a phenomenon that some have labeled “grade inflation.” Because of the significant implications of grade inflation for the credibility of academia's standards of excellence and accountability, efforts should be directed toward explaining why this phenomenon is occurring, and remedies sought. The present study represents a comparison of 10 departments displaying high grade inflation rates during a 7-year period with 10 departments within the same university displaying low(er) grade inflation rates. The study found an average inflation of grades of +.298 during this time period, with higher grade inflation rates related to perceived and/or actual increases in the demands or pressures placed upon the academician's role, to greater flexibility in grading options and, in particular, to the use of more subjective student-based methods of evaluation. While the study's findings also support the “peaking effect” theory that grade inflation rates will slow down, the central question remains: How high will grade point averages rise and, in the absence of positive corrective action, what will be the effect of the grade inflation phenomenon on the credibility of institutions of higher education and their graduates?     

Global university rankings and their impact on the internationalisation of higher education

Global university rankings are a worldwide trend that emerged in times of the globalisation and internationalisation of higher education. Universities worldwide are now striving to become “world‐class” institutions and are constantly aiming to improve their ranking position. Global rankings of universities are thus perceived by many as an ultimate tool for assessing the level of internationalisation at individual higher education institutions. This article first discusses the meaning of and relationship between the globalisation and internationalisation of higher education, as their influence on the emergence of global rankings is undeniable. It then outlines the methodological designs of four main global university rankings which serve as key prerequisites for the subsequent analyses of both the international(‐isation) indicators that these rankings include and of the international ranking initiatives that focus exclusively on the international outlook of higher education institutions. In the concluding discussion, the article reveals that, due to the predominantly quantitative orientation of global university rankings (on the internationalisation of higher education), their results should not be generalised or understood as a means to improve the quality of (internationalisation of) higher education.     

Organisation and leadership in higher education. Learning from experiences in the Netherlands

Similar to several other Western European countries, a ‘managerial revolution’ has swept through Dutch higher education. Partly in response to the new Act to Modernise the Structure of University Governance, many universities have set up education institutes.Purpose of the investigation was to find out whether the establishment of education institutes serves to improve education quality. A suitable framework for analysing the information gathered was obtained by applying Ernst Marx's analytical model of the university administrative organisation. The application of this framework isolated four factors critical for the success of education institutes. In four out of the eight institutes the organisation of education is having a beneficial influence upon education quality. The director of the education institute plays an important role due to either demonstrable educational or transformative leadership qualities or by allowing teachers to take initiatives and above all making teaching teams responsible for parts of the curriculum.     

Access and equity programme provision-evaluation in Australian higher education: a what matters approach

This article draws on findings from a national review of the evaluation of access and equity initiatives across Australian higher education to argue that utilising responsive mixed methods focused on the values of participants enables crucial understanding of what matters to the people involved. Based on the evidence collected, a “what matters” conceptual guide is provided to assist with programme design and evaluation. The approach enables identification of the multiple complex variables involved in generating programme outcomes that matter to the groups they are intended for. Provision and evaluation processes must be iteratively connected so that they are responsive to changing contexts and needs over time. Key concepts from critical realism and complexity theory are applied to highlight that context, complexity, and temporality are critical elements to incorporate into approaches to provision-evaluation. The “what matters” guide is designed to enable programmes that are accessible, engaging, and valuable to all participants.     

The dimensions of social dynamics in comparative studies on higher education

This article discusses social dynamics of higher education which is one of the most crucial but neglected perspectives in comparative studies of higher education. We pay attention to the importance of time, space and contexts—both geographical and socio-cultural ones—to reveal how they influence on different social dynamics in various systems of higher education. The article focuses on the national higher education system level. Theoretically we approach higher education systems from a relational perspective paying attention to dynamics created by changing relationships between different actors in cultural, geographical and historical contexts.     

An analytical framework for the cross-country comparison of higher education governance

In this article we provide an integrated framework for the analysis of higher education governance which allows us to more systematically trace the changes that European higher education systems are currently undergoing. We argue that, despite highly insightful previous analyses, there is a need for more specific empirically observable indicators of policy change and inertia. We therefore propose a systematic classification of empirical indicators of higher education governance. To do so, we look at three historically entrenched and still highly relevant European models of higher education??academic self-governance, the state-centered model and the market-oriented model. Based on these broader overarching models which reflect the tensions between the state, market and academia, we develop three ideal-types that take internal university governance as well as the role of the state and external stakeholders into account. Against this background, we derive empirical indicators with regard to the institutional balance of power, financial governance, personnel autonomy and substantive matters. Our analytical contribution shall enable scholars, and in particular political and social scientists, to trace ongoing patterns of change and convergence as well as persistence and inertia in higher education governance arrangements.     

Arbiters of effectiveness and efficiency: the frames and strategies of management consulting firms in US higher education reform

A growing number of public colleges and universities in the United States have hired management consulting firms to help develop strategies aimed at increasing institutional effectiveness and efficiency. The purpose of this paper is to explore the frames and strategies of consultants in US public higher education reform efforts. Drawing upon a range of documentary evidence, the paper examines four consulting firms (Accenture, Bain & Company, Deloitte and McKinsey & Company) and their perspectives on higher education reform. The paper analyses the consultative process with two public universities and two state higher education systems to determine possible avenues by which consultants exert influence. Through reference to theory on academic capitalism and new institutionalism, the paper reveals the ways in which consultants circulate crisis narratives and diffuse private sector management ideas among public colleges and universities that are seeking both financial solvency and legitimacy.     

Marketization of higher education in the People's Republic of China

Reforms of higher education in P.R.C. since the overall promulgation of the socialist market economy have impacted both the employment of graduates and the funding mechanism of higher education. All students are charged tuition starting from the academic year of 1995/96 and are “employed” rather than “assigned to jobs” after graduation. It is evident that market forces start to have a role to play in marketization of higher education in P.R.C. because it influences both the students' choices of disciplines leading to future career opportunities and the government's allocation of public spending in higher education. British universities are ahead of their Chinese counterpart in experiencing the impact of market forces on higher education. The framework of marketization of higher education in Britain will be discussed with considerations of unique characteristics of higher education in the P.R.C.