The differential impact of privately and publicly funded R&D on R&D investment and innovation: the Italian case

This paper explores the impact of a specific R&D policy instrument, the Italian Fondo per le Agevolazioni della Ricerca (FAR), on industrial R&D and technological output at the firm level. Our objective is threefold: first, to identify the presence or absence of private R&D investment additionality/crowding-out within a pooled sample and in various firm subsets (identified by region, size, level of technology, and other features), while also taking into account the effect of single policy instruments or mixes of them. Secondly, to analyse the output (innovation) additionality by comparing the differential impact of privately funded R&D and publicly funded R&D expenditure on applications for patents filed by firms. Thirdly, the paper will compare the structural characteristics of firms showing additionality with those of firms showing crowding-out, in order to determine the firm characteristics associated with successful policy interventions. Our results suggest that FAR is effective in the pooled sample, although no effect emerges in some firm subsets. In particular, while large firms seem to have been decisive for the success of this policy, small firms present a more marked crowding-out effect. Furthermore, the firms’ growth strategies and ability to transform R&D input into innovation output (patents) seem to have a positive effect in terms of additionality.     

Freerider behaviour and the public finance of R&D activities in enterprises: the case of the Spanish low interest credits for R&D

This paper analyses the freeriding behaviour in the case of public finance for R&D activities in enterprises. It will start with a brief discussion about the concept of freeriding and its importance to justify public support measures and offers a review of the methods, indicators and results reflected in the evaluation studies.In the second part of the paper, the impact of the Spanish low interest credits for R&D projects for individual firms will be analysed. A profile of the “freerider firms” will be offered, defined as those supported firms whose innovative efforts do not depend on public aid and probably would or could have carried out the same level of innovative activities without public support. Moreover, the paper presents some evidence that firms with a freerider behaviour show a lower level of goal achievement related to their technical and commercial objectives and consider the learning effects as less important than the other firms. This could suggest, indirectly, that freeriders generate fewer externalities available for the production system as a whole—than the non-freerider firms.     

全球创新价值链模式的国际研发投资转移研究

全球创新价值链作为新近出现的组织当今国际研发投资转移的主要方式,势必对全球科技创新的微观基础产生根本性影响。它打破了跨国公司海外投资主要为其产品提供本地化技术服务的功能格局,是国际分工进一步朝纵深方向发展的外在表现。在对全球创新价值链模式的国际研发投资转移概念进行界定的基础上,论文对全球创新价值链模式的国际研发投资转移的动力、影响,及其对中国自主创新升级的启示进行了系统阐述。论文认为,国际研发投资转移不是目的,重要的是通过何种方式实施国际研发投资转移,以及这种方式背后的驱动力量及协调机制对中国自主创新升级及区域转型发展的意义。     

International comparisons of R&D effort: The case of the Canadian pharmaceutical industry

The Canadian federal government, anxious to stimulate innovation, announced recently a policy objective for the economy: the attainment of industrial research expenditures reaching 1.5 percent of the gross national product. The proposed substantial increase over the current level is rationalized by comparison with economy-wide research intensities (GERD/GNP) in other OECD countries.This paper questions the economic validity and policy relevance of international aggregate comparisons. It argues that inter-country comparisons should take place at individual industry levels where technologies are similar and proposes a methodology for formulating R&D spending targets of this kind. The procedure is to estimate a model of the determinants of R&D intensity with data from several “criterion countries” and employ the results to “predict” a specific industry's research intensity in another country.In this paper such a model is formulated for the pharmaceutical industry of seven OECD countries. Plausible parameter estimates are derived and used to “forecast” the research intensity of the Canadian pharmaceutical industry. It is found that given the predominance of foreign ownership, the nature of patent protection and the level of other relevant variables in Canada, the performance of this sector is much above the OECD-derived standard; this Canadian industry presumably does not require governmental attention to its R&D activities.     

Geographic dispersion and co-location in global R&D portfolios: Consequences for firm performance

We examine how the ways in which firms geographically configure their global portfolios of R&D units influence the effectiveness of firms’ own R&D investments and of external technical knowledge in enhancing firm performance. Our analysis indicates that the strength of these effects depends on the extent to which firms spread their R&D units across countries (geographic dispersion of R&D) and the extent to which firms establish multiple R&D units within each country (co-location of R&D). We show that geographic dispersion and co-location are associated with distinct value creation and value capture mechanisms and in turn lead to different performance outcomes. Although geographic dispersion enhances the effects of a firm’s own R&D on its performance, R&D co-location limits such effects. These relationships are reversed when we consider the effects of external technical knowledge on firm performance. R&D co-location, rather than geographic dispersion, is what renders the exploitation of external knowledge more effective in enhancing firm performance. Our results suggest that future research should shift its focus from the degree of R&D globalization to how a portfolio is globalized and geographically structured.     

内外部合法性平衡:全球研发的海外进入模式选择

本研究聚焦于"后发企业研发国际化的战略动机是如何影响其海外研发机构进入模式的"这一核心问题,文章首先从技术特征和市场焦点两个维度解构了研发国际化的战略动机,识别了三种中国企业海外研发中心的功能定位:海外市场适应点、技术先驱点以及技术卓越中心。第二,本文从合法性双元视角出发,提出了相对合法性需求的概念,研究了不同研发国际化动机下,企业面临的内外合法性需求之争,以及形成主导的合法性需求;后发企业会根据内外合法性需求的相对水平对海外研发机构的进入模式和治理结构进行安排,以平衡和响应这两股抵触的力量。本研究提出了战略动机→内外合法性需求优先权→进入模式选择的整合分析框架,为企业研发国际化过程中海外子公司进入模式选择提供了理论解释。     

Controlling contractual exchange risks in R&D interfirm cooperation: an empirical study

Suppliers and buyers of R&D results perceive two exchange risks: first, the risk to achieve a lower profitability on the innovation return than the exchange partner, second, the risk of the partner becoming a competitor by unplanned, one-sided knowledge flows. Both risks motivate opportunistic behaviour. The paper deals with the reduction of the perceived supplier risks. We analyse how an option on later negotiation of an additional continuous innovation return sharing which is based on contractual hostages can lower the perceived exchange risks. An empirical study examines how effectively these hostages lower the perceived risks.     

研发伙伴多样性与创新绩效——研发合作经验的调节效应

企业在全球范围内构建研发网络日益成为提升创新绩效的重要途径。基于资源基础观和交易成本理论,提出研发伙伴多样性与创新绩效之间存在倒U型关系。以218家中国医药制造企业为研究样本,实证结果表明,企业的研发伙伴组织多样性和研发伙伴地理多样性均会积极地影响其创新绩效,而倒U型的曲线关系未得到证实。此外,研发合作经验增强了研发伙伴组织多样性对创新绩效的积极关系,而研发合作经验对研发伙伴地理多样性与创新绩效之间关系的调节效应未得到证实。     

The impact of firm participation in R&D programmes on R&D partnerships

R&D subsidies designed to encourage innovation efforts by firms may have intended and unintended effects on the way they organize their innovation process. We present empirical evidence on how R&D subsidies affect firms’ R&D cooperation strategies. In particular, we investigate whether receiving public R&D subsidies affect the probability that a firm will set up an R&D partnership with a public research organization (PRO), or with other firms. Our main findings are: (i) public support significantly increases the chances that a firm will cooperate with a PRO, and (ii) public support also increases the likelihood that a firm will establish private partnerships, but to a smaller extent and only when firms have intangible knowledge assets. These results suggest that public R&D programmes trigger a behavioural change in firms’ R&D partnerships, alleviating barriers to cooperation.     

The maturation of global corporate R&D: Evidence from the activity of U.S. foreign subsidiaries

This study empirically investigates the impact of foreign country factors like market size, technological strength of industries, and science and engineering (S&E) capability on the conduct of U.S. overseas R&D during the 1991-2002 period. We find that overseas markets primarily predict the entry of U.S. R&D, while the S&E capability of nations is strongly correlated with the post-entry intensity of U.S. foreign subsidiaries’ innovative activity. We also find important inter-industry differences: U.S. electrical, electronics, computer, and telecommunication industries are strongly drawn towards overseas S&E capacity; industries including Machinery, Automobiles, and Transport equipment are primarily attracted by the technological strength of foreign industry; U.S. R&D in Chemicals mostly follows overseas markets. We discuss the implications of our results to the global organization of innovative activity and innovation policy.     

(International) R&D collaboration and SMEs: The effectiveness of targeted public R&D support schemes

This study analyses the impact and effectiveness of targeted public support for R&D investment at the firm level. We test whether the policy design aiming at incentivizing (international) collaboration and R&D in SMEs achieves input as well as output additionality. Our results show that the targeted public subsidies trigger R&D spending, especially so in internationally collaborating SMEs. We further evaluate the different impact of privately financed and publicly induced R&D investment on innovation performance. The results confirm that the publicly induced R&D is productive as it translates into marketable product innovations. While both types of R&D investments trigger significant output effects, the effect of policy-induced R&D investment on sales from market novelties is highest for international collaborators as well as for SMEs.     

Institutionalizing end-user demand steering in agricultural R&D: Farmer levy funding of R&D in The Netherlands

The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the institutionalization of demand-driven modes of working in the R&D planning process and reveal possible weaknesses, through an analysis of a system of collective R&D funding by farmers. The findings indicate that, although end-users have the opportunity to raise issues that lead to R&D, queries are influenced by several actors in the R&D planning process in such a way that they do not adequately reflect farmers’ innovation needs. Conclusions are that more emphasis is required on joint demand articulation and involvement of end-users and other stakeholders in the innovation process, and on the institutional development of R&D funding organizations in order to adopt a more inclusive view on innovation.     

A case analysis of semantic technologies for R&D intermediation information management

It is evident that companies and research centres can find a myriad of instruments to fund their R&D (Research & Development) activities. Due to the dynamics of the information management in these circumstances there is a need for intermediary businesses intervention. Consequently, intermediary companies are thus involved in a complex process that needs to be managed and controlled. Within this scenario an Information Technology (IT) platform, named RDi-Advise, was developed by EgeoIT using semantic technologies to support R&D process decisions. This case analysis describes the development and implementation of the platform including the lessons learned during the activity period.     

政府研发资助、企业研发投入与中国创新效率

本文采用2003-2012年中国地区面板数据,利用超越对数的随机前沿模型和门限回归模型就政府研发资助和企业研发投入对中国创新效率的影响及政府研发资助和企业研发投入的最优强度区间进行分析。研究发现:目前在我国创新过程中,政府研发资助对创新效率的影响为负,存在一定的"政府失灵",企业研发投入能够促进创新效率的提高,"市场失灵"现象较少出现;政府研发资助强度的最优区间为0.282以上,企业研发投入强度的最优区间为0.688-0.775。     

Differences in the rates of return to R&D for European and US young leading R&D firms

This paper examines the sources of Europe's lagging business R&D performance relative to the US, particularly the role played by missing young leading innovators in high technology intensive sectors in Europe. It investigates through econometric analysis differences in the rates of return to R&D of European and US large R&D firms. It finds that, while in the US, young firms succeed in realizing significantly higher rates of return to R&D as compared to their older counterparts, including in high-tech sectors, European firms fail to generate significant rates of return, even if they are Yollies and even if they are in high-tech sectors. These findings can at least partly explain why Europe has less R&D intensive young leading innovators in high technology intensive sectors.     

公共研发投资对企业研发投入杠杆作用的研究

在我国,由政府支持的公共研发部门(主要包括高等院校和科研院所)和企业构成了社会研发系统。在此系统内,企业的研发投资决策变化,会影响公共研发投资杠杆作用的效果。本文运用FGLS方法,利用2009-2013年规模以上工业企业省际面板数据,从社会研发系统的视角,探讨了当系统内企业受政府RD资助强度变化时,公共研发投资对企业研发投入杠杆作用的变化。研究发现公共研发投资的杠杆作用存在区域差距,在政府对企业RD资助强度大的地区,政府支持高等院校研发会促进本地区企业研发投入,且促进效应会因其对企业RD资助强度大而加剧,但支持科研院所研发会挤出本地区企业研发投入;而在资助强度小的地区,影响则完全相反。因此各级政府在进行公共研发投资时应注意科技投入的精准化,合理搭配政策工具。     

Tax incentives for R&D: a critical evaluation

A number of policy proposals have recently been presented that seek to address the problem of declining productivity growth. Many of these are aimed at encouraging private R&D spending through tax incentives. This paper first reviews some of these proposals, then evaluates tax incentives per se as a policy tool for encouraging R&D growth, and finally offers suggestions for redesigning R&D related tax incentive policies.     

Effect of R&D programmes on the formation of university-industry-government networks: comparative analysis of Japanese R&D programmes

Japan has established several R&D programmes since the 1980s aimed at basic and fundamental R&D in response to the criticism of its free-riding on Western basic research. In some of these programmes, the linkages between university, industry and government have been a requirement for formation or selection of projects. In this paper, it is investigated how five Japanese R&D programmes promote inter-sectoral and inter-institutional networks. The result shows that the projects of the Next Generation Programme for pre-competitive research formed few but multiple university-industry-government linkages within each project by designing the complementary relationships among the participants. Linkages between private companies were not much formed except for the projects of the ERATO Programme, in which researchers temporarily leave their own institutes. The funds for more basic research was found to have little effect on the formation of networks within projects but do form the linkages outside the projects.