Reconstruction of Tradition: Modernity,Tourism and Shaolin Martial Arts in the Shaolin Scenic Area,China

Abstract

This paper begins with an interpretation of how Shaolin martial arts were used to provide military service for imperial authorities before 1949, and how it was restricted and forbidden to practise in Mao’s era from 1949 to 1978. It then examines how UNESCO’s international heritage conventions and China’s post-1978 heritage policies have influenced the reconstruction of Shaolin martial arts and tourism development at the Shaolin Temple since 1978. It investigates the relationship between different agents and how they have influenced the reconstruction of traditional Shaolin martial arts and tourism development. This paper argues current Shaolin martial arts, known as Shaolin Kungfu, have been deliberately reconstructed to serve contemporary political and economic needs. Contemporary Shaolin Kungfu is, in fact, a product of the interaction between heritage authorization processes and tourism development. The reconstruction of Shaolin martial arts also demonstrates hierarchical relationships of power between these different actors. This has led to a situation in which ‘experts’ and local residents are positioned unequally. The overarching finding of this study is that Shaolin martial arts worked as a tool for Shaolin monks to develop the Shaolin Temple in history and Shaolin monks have assumed the role of ‘expert’ in reconstructing Shaolin martial arts.     

Practising Martial Arts Versus Studying Martial Arts

Abstract

There is often a perceived conflict between practising martial arts and the academic study of martial arts. Those who practise it do not need to know the history of martial arts, and those who study it do not need the physical practice to inform their research. This paper argues that practitioners will improve their practice by study, in particular, they will gain a demystified sense of the origins of martial arts. The construction of traditional martial arts is the result of the East Asian reaction to Western imperialism and modernity. Moreover, this category developed in direct response to the introduction of modern sports into Asia. Critical to this modern creation was the development of styles of martial arts, where before there were scattered and disparate schools. Styles suggested greater national unity and cultural coherence than schools, thus aiding the building of modern nation states in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.     

儒家思想在中国传统武术中的渗透

儒家文化是中国传统文化的主流,作为中国传统文化主体的儒家思想,在长期潜移默化的历史过程中融原生文化形态与国家意识形态为一体,对中国传统武术具有极强的驾驭与统摄力量。无论是从习武的方法过程来看,亦或是从习武者所崇尚的人生境界来说,儒家思想都以其神奇的生命力深深地渗透于中国传统武术的心脏及每个血管。     

The Development of Chinese Martial Arts in Taiwan since 1949

Abstract

In Taiwan, the historical development of traditional Chinese martial arts, or kuoshu and wushu as they are called today, has been quite diverse. This paper examines the development of Chinese martial arts from 1949 to 2017 in the context of Taiwan based on available historical evidence and in-depth interviews. The results show that there were three major historical periods in the development of Chinese martial arts. The foundation period was inaugurated when Chinese martial artists fled to Taiwan with the Nationalists. During this period, martial arts studios spread throughout the country and people began learning the traditional Chinese martial arts skills together with the national physical education curriculum incorporated martial arts in schools. Chinese martial arts in Taiwan then entered the competitive sports period when the Chinese government to promote competitive martial arts internationally and to standardize the practice and grading system required for competitions. During this period, standardized rules for nationwide competition were established, and sports instructors and athletes were trained to participate in international wushu competitions. Currently, the Chinese martial arts have been modernized and being practised to build confidence, mental discipline, and physical strength as well as for self-defence, recreational pursuits, and competition.     

武术教学文化内涵培育大学生文化自信研究

“文化自信”是新时代中国发展的理论基石,是民族伟大复兴的不竭动力。传统武术包含的民族性、文化性等教育特点是培育大学生文化自信的重要途径,发挥武术的实践价值和体认价值,通过深入挖掘武术教学文化内涵、分析其文化价值,坚定走武术文化性教学的道路。内涵:自立通达的武术技术文化;自强和谐的武术技击文化;自豪辩证的哲学思想文化;自信道德的塑造文化。价值:深化民族文化认同;促进尚武精神重铸;推进师道文化重塑;促进社会和谐。     

对哈尔滨市中学生武术运动认识情况的调查

为了探寻体育全球化背景下青少年对武术运动的认识情况,对140名哈尔滨市中学生进行了问卷调查,结果表明:中学武术课开设并不普及;中学生对武术运动不是太喜欢;认为武术课程的内容设置不尽合理;学校武术教育对武术文化的传授不够;学生对武术的形式、内容、文化内涵还缺乏了解;大部分学生对武术的礼仪文化不感兴趣。建议学校必须重视民族传统文化、包括民族传统体育文化在学校教育中的地位和作用。     

Olympic samurai: Japanese martial arts between sports and self-cultivation

ABSTRACT

One of the longest-standing debates in the martial arts relates to their being either ‘sports’ or methods of self-cultivation. Traditionalists often ascribe unique spiritual characteristics to the martial arts, while criticising the ‘sportification’ of certain practices. In this view, the martial arts are seen to have declined from ancient ideals and become focused on ‘superficial’ competition and techniques. This paper argues that the supposedly intrinsic connection between martial arts and mental self-cultivation is largely a product of the last 150 years, and developed from the historical context of Japan’s modernisation in the late nineteenth century, as martial arts were codified while experiencing a powerful challenge from the arrival of Western sports. This dynamic was closely related to the development of the nationalistic ideology of bushido, the ‘way of the samurai’, which was frequently invoked by promoters of the martial arts. In this context, intangible elements such as ‘spirit’ were used by martial artists to include and exclude people along lines of gender, nationality, and ethnicity. This paper uses three Tokyo Olympics, 2020, 1964, and the cancelled 1940 games, to examine how the Japanese martial arts were ‘spiritualised’, and to consider the enduring legacy of imperial ideologies.     

影响高校武术选项课教学效果因素及对策

武术是中华民族传统瑰宝,在社会生活中发挥着日益重要的作用,继承和传播武术文化是我们的义务和责任。高校是武术传播的一条重要途径,高校武术选项课教学效果的好坏直接影响所培养学生的武术修为,从而影响武术文化和运动的继承、传播和发展,因此提高高校武术课教学效果,对于武术运动发展有着极其重要的作用。文章主要运用文献资料法、并结合多年教学体验,从体育教学体制、教师队伍建设、教学水平,以及学生的学习态度等几个方面,论述了影响武术选项课教学效果的相关因素,并提出相应的对策。     

Historical Views on the Origins of Korea’s Taekwondo

Abstract

The present study reviews the key contents and issues of Traditionalism, New Traditionalism and Revisionism, the key historical views of Taekwondo, with the purpose of focusing on the validity and limitations of New Revisionism. Traditionalism emphasizes that Taekwondo is Korea’s traditional martial art. New Traditionalism accepts this view and also recognizes the partial effect of Karate on Taekwondo without providing enough supporting evidence on their claims. Revisionism also focuses on the effect of Karate on Taekwondo. While New Revisionism shares a similar focus to Revisionism, it also focuses on the effects of Chinese martial arts on Karate and Taekwondo, which have been neglected previously. The validity of New Revisionism was supported with evidence on the following factors: the effect of Chinese martial arts on Karate, the effect of Chinese martial arts on Korea’s top five martial arts schools and their training methods, and the effect of Chinese martial arts appearing in the book written by the figures related to the top five initial martial arts schools after 1945. Despite a few limitations of the current historical views, New Revisionism suggests that Korea’s Taekwondo was affected by Japanese martial arts and Chinese martial arts, both directly and indirectly, in its formation.     

Making Martial Arts History Matter

Abstract

This paper examines key ways in which ideas such as ‘tradition’, ‘authenticity’, and ‘history’ are deployed in discourses around Asian martial arts. First introducing how such concepts are used in national contexts such as Korea and elsewhere in East Asia it then examines the case of a dispute between two English language writers on martial arts. It examines these different cases to illustrate the ways that ‘tradition’, ‘authenticity’, and ‘history’ can be deployed for different ideological ends, from nationalism to personal self-advancement, in different contexts. In doing so, the paper theorizes the consequences of antagonisms that have recently arisen between common beliefs about certain Asian martial arts and historical studies that challenge such beliefs. It concludes that the discursive status of ‘history’ is not fixed or permanent, but varies depending on context. This is the case to such an extent that the status of ‘history’ can be said to have changed decisively. Ultimately, the paper argues for the value of rigorous scholarship even when it runs counter to cultural beliefs, and highlights the significance of such scholarship for showing the ways in which martial arts history matters in more contexts and registers than martial arts alone.     

从中西文化的比较论中国武术的发展

产生于不同社会文化背景下的中华武术与西方体育,属于不同的体育体系,通过对中西文化特点的比较研究,提出中国武术的发展,必须扎根于中华民族的文化土壤,弘扬民族文化,兼容并蓄的进入奥林匹克运动—走向世界。     

The Japanese and Korean Martial Arts: In Search of a Philosophical Framework Compatible to History

Abstract

The popular discourse about Asian martial arts has often been surrounded by an aura of esotericism, so pervasive that it even influenced the academic discussion to some degree. Moreover, nationalistic motives to promote certain martial arts narratives often prevail. This article focuses on the frequently flawed philosophical and historical discourse surrounding the Asian martial arts. In particular, this study concentrates on the academic discussions of the Japanese and Korean martial arts, and the search for a philosophical framework compatible with historical narratives. The Japanese created a romantic but also nationalistic martial arts narrative that aligned with the ideals of the Meiji Restoration. This romanticized image was naively accepted in the West, often imported along with esoteric ideas of the East. And, as most modern Korean martial arts originated in Japan, the Korean martial arts discussion aligns with that of Japanese martial arts, and this alignment has been a point of heated dispute. Discussions of Korean martial arts reflect a search for a definitive identity of the Korean martial arts community as well as the desire to establish a martial arts tradition independent of those of Japan as well as China. However, the discourse has often been influenced by western, albeit biased and perhaps faulty, historical views, and ideas about martial arts traditions.     

论青少年武德教育

武德是中华武术在几千年的实践和发展中,习武者不断从优秀的传统文化中吸取营养和智慧逐步形成的传统道德准则,是中华民族传统道德的重要组成部分,也是我们中华民族宝贵的精神财富。青少年从事武术运动一方面有助于培养其高尚的道德品质、顽强的意志品质和奋发向上的精神。另一方面有助于青少年形成良好的武德品质,并对其思想行为产生良好的效应,对青少年思想品质的塑造产生良好的作用,这样将对提高全民族的思想素质和道德素养有着十分重要的积极作用。     

武术“意象”的美学阐释

意象是中国传统美学的重要范畴,而武术是中华民族的国粹。本文从美学视角出发,运用文献资料、比较研究解读武术意象的美学特质。出于武术先人对物象的细致观察,根据自身对象形的抽象概括,使我们感受到了武术的"境象"。武术讲究一种形式美、运动美和自然景观相互统一的完美和谐的共融。习者通过一种观察外物而达到自己"感悟",亦让心与物产生感应交流,再充分表现出一种"意境",从而彰显出中华传统文化的浓郁审美情趣。     

The Future of Asian Traditional Martial Arts

Abstract

Contemporary Asia is in the process of not only developing industrialization and democratization, but also establishing Asian homogeneity and intercommunity through the universal cultural phenomenon of sports originating from the West. This paper considers the future of traditional Asian martial arts through Allen Guttmann’s seven characteristics of modern sport. In future, Asia, especially Northeast Asia; South Korea, China, and Japan are likely to become the world’s leading powerhouses based on their infinite potential in human, material and ideological resources. The Olympics will be hosted by three Asian countries in four years: in 2018, the PyeongChang Winter Olympics in South Korea, in 2020 the Tokyo Summer Olympics in Japan, and in 2022 the Beijing Winter Olympics in China, respectively. This paper examines the development of traditional Asian martial arts in China, Japan and South Korea against the background of modernization and globalization. Also, discussions regarding impediments to the efforts and measures for improvement are provided. Asian martial arts have been transformed in both nature and content and the notion of the characteristics of modern sports Guttmann proposes is prominent.     

武术学科定位的重新审视

武术是中华民族传统体育文化的代表,武术学是研究武术发展规律的科学。武术的历史渊源博大精深,人们对武术认识的不同形成了武术学科定位的差异。学科的定位直接决定学科研究的问题领域。文章通过对武术学科定位、武术学科建立所需条件和武术学科发展问题的探讨,指出武术学科的定位问题是决定武术未来发展的关键。     

武术教育在高校体育中的功能研究

中华武术作为中华民族传统体育文化,随着现代教育改革的不断深入,其在高校体育教育中逐渐显现出特有的价值。武术有助于大学生身心健康、培养良好的品质以及促进中西方体育文化共同发展,对于高校体育教育具有重要作用,值得在高校体育教育中大力推广和普及。目前,武术教育在高校体育中发展情况并不乐观,该文重点讨论了武术在高校体育教育中的功能,希望武术教育在高校体育中得到传承与发展。     

Asian Martial Arts: The Anarchic Legacy of the War Machine

Abstract

The renaissance of Asian martial arts is a conspicuous example of cultural hybridity in a global setting. Globalization brings these arts under the dual sway of cinema and sport to a degree unprecedented in their history. This pull, which I describe in terms from Deleuze and Guattari as deterritorialization, creates new challenges for Asian martial arts practice. To explore these challenges and their stakes, I demonstrate the relevance of the concept of the war machine from Deleuze and Guattari, and discuss their distinction between weapons and tools as it bears on Asian martial arts history and practice.     

论两晋南北朝的射箭文化——兼与《中国武术史》、《体育史》作者商榷

两晋南北朝是中华民族大融合大发展的重要时期,射箭活动是当时最具典型意义的代表性武艺项目,形成为一种独特的"武文化"现象,至今影响深远。从民族精神与传统体育视角综合概括这一历史环境条件下的射箭文化发展历程和价值取向,对于继承和弘扬民族传统体育文化,传承民族精神,完善与充实中国体育发展史,并在此基础上,为构建民族传统体育学科体系是十分重要的环节。     

南京国民政府国术推行工作述略

出于文化自觉下对国术价值的认识,南京国民政府在成立后即积极开展推行国术的工作,意图达到“强国御侮”的目的。在推行国术的工作中,国民政府设立了中央及地方各级国术馆作为专门的国术推行机关;颁布法令,要求行政机关及军队等练习国术;重视教育力量的运用,并通过宣传等方式辅助推行。民国时期国民政府的国术推行工作对于国术自身的推广与发展起到了一些积极作用,但限于时代条件,其注定无法达到预期的效果与目的。