Getting to Scale: Evidence,Professionalism, and Community

ABSTRACT

Evidence-based reform, in which proven programs are scaled up to reach many students, is playing an increasing role in American education. This article summarizes articles in this issue to explain how Reading Recovery has managed to sustain itself and go to scale over more than 30 years. It argues that Reading Recovery has succeeded due to a focus on evidence, professionalism, and community. Implications of the experience of Reading Recovery for policy and practice are discussed.     

The effect of reading recovery® on special education referrals and placements

This study examined the effect of Reading Recovery®, an early intervention program for first‐grade children, on the rates of referral and placement in special education in New York City. Study participants consisted of students who had a complete Reading Recovery (RR) program (RR‐discontinued and RR‐recommended) and a comparison group composed of children with literacy difficulties, who were initially performing at a slightly higher level than the Reading Recovery children. The results showed that children who received the Reading Recovery program were referred for testing and placed in special education at a statistically significant lower rate. Reading Recovery is associated with a 5% reduction in estimated referral rate and a 3% decrease in placement rate. Additionally, an examination of the classification labels of children placed in special education revealed that RR‐discontinued children were less likely to be classified as learning disabled than those in both the comparison group and the RR‐recommended group. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 39: 635–646, 2002.     

Reading Recovery: Exploring the Effects on First-Graders' Reading Motivation and Achievement

ABSTRACT

This study examined the effects of Reading Recovery on children's motivational levels, and how motivation may contribute to the effect of the intervention on literacy achievement. Prior studies concluded that Reading Recovery was positively associated with increased student motivation levels, but most of those studies were limited methodologically. The achievement and motivation levels before and after the intervention of Reading Recovery students and similarly low-performing first-grade students were compared using structural equation modeling. It was found that Reading Recovery had a .31 treatment effect on achievement after controlling for baseline achievement and motivational differences among the treatment and comparison students. Reading Recovery also was associated with greater average levels of posttest motivation, and motivation was found to mediate the treatment-achievement relationship. This study highlights how important it is for early reading interventions to consider the role motivation plays in literacy acquisition.     

Reading intervention at age 6: Long-term effects of Reading Recovery in the UK on qualifications and support at age 16

One argument for early intervention for reading difficulties is that it can sustainably improve children’s reading competence trajectory (the ‘inoculation model’), but there are virtually no studies on sustained effects at the end of compulsory schooling. This study reports on a 10-year follow-up of a widely used early literacy intervention, Reading Recovery. UK schools adopting Reading Recovery enrol selected teachers for a year’s training, after which they provide one-to-one tutoring and typically act as literacy advisors. In a quasi-experimental, intention to treat, design, 293 6-year-olds with reading difficulties in 42 London schools were assigned to Reading Recovery (RR), standard provision in Reading Recovery schools (RRS) or standard provision in comparison schools (CS). Children were traced at ages 14 (204) and 16 (271) and data collected from the National Pupil Database. At age 14 and 16, significantly fewer RR than CS pupils were officially identified as having special educational needs, a potential consequence of reading difficulties. Using multi-level modelling and controlling for baseline reading and Free School Meal status (an indicator of poverty), at age 16 the RR group significantly outperformed the CS group on academic qualifications (GCSEs) (d = 0.52). However, the RRS group also performed significantly better than the CS group (d = 0.37), consistent with the fact that standard provision for weaker readers in RR schools differed from that provided in CS. Thus, these results support the long-term effects of early intervention but raise questions about the importance of whole-school effects and systemic intervention.     

Tony Blair’s big prize? A reply to Furlong

In the December 2008 special issue of the Oxford Review of Education John Furlong focused upon Tony Blair’s modernisation of the teaching profession and associated attempts to harness teacher professionalism to a broader reform agenda. This article responds to Furlong’s contribution through an examination of the evidence base used to support his conclusions, the way in which different types of evidence are used in this process and the criteria used to judge Blair’s success in this venture. It is suggested that Blair’s reforms of the teaching profession might be better viewed as a mere technicality within a wider scheme rather than the ‘big prize’ claimed by Furlong. It concludes by suggesting an alternative approach to writing the history of Blair and New Labour in this context which foregrounds the relationship between teachers and the state.     

Response to Intervention: Following Three Reading Recovery Children on Their Individual Paths to Becoming Literate

Research Findings: In the United States a shift has occurred in how children are identified for long-term special education services. Since 2004, U.S. funding for special education services has included a provision for early intervention services, focusing on the importance of providing supplemental instructional opportunities to students who are not successful in learning from the core classroom instruction. Commonly referred to as response to intervention, this model involves educators monitoring how well students respond to intervention instruction, with referral for special education services for those who make little progress. Practice or Policy: In this article, we propose that intervention instruction should be responsive to the learner as well as focus on how well the learner responds to the intervention. Given that contextual circumstances, including instructional experiences, impact the child's literacy achievement, providing intervention instruction that is contingent upon each child's literacy strengths and needs is the best way to ensure each child's successful response to intervention instruction. As an example of an intervention using responsive instruction, this article describes different instructional approaches provided by Reading Recovery teachers with 3 children who were initially the lowest readers and writers in their classes. All 3 children were able to progress to on-grade-level reading and writing proficiency as a result of the intervention.     

Reading comprehension: assisting children with learning difficulties

Abstract

In critiquing our paper on “The literacy performance of ex-Reading Recovery students between two and four years following participation in the program: Is this intervention effective for students with early reading difficulties?”, Schwartz argues that we have engaged in pursuing political and ideological agendas as part of our ongoing attacks on the Reading Recovery program. We reject his claims and argue that if we are ideological, it is related to our commitment to the use of rigorous scientific research to examine claims made in favor of the Reading Recovery program. We also argue that Reading Recovery was adopted in New Zealand largely for political reasons rather than on the basis of carefully controlled research. We stand by our interpretation of various studies in New Zealand that call into question the effectiveness of Reading Recovery in terms of the stated goals for the program.     

Role of the epistemic subject in Piaget's genetic epistemology and its importance for science education

According to Piaget, a fundamental epistemological distinction must be made between the psychological and the epistemic subject. The epistemic subject is studied by the genetic epistemologist who charts development through a “common universal rationality, which develops,” whereas the psychological subject is studied by the developmental/cognitive psychologist by focusing on accidental contingencies surrounding particular people and their individual differences. The epistemic subject as compared to the psychological subject is an idealized abstraction, viz., that set of underlying epistemic structures common to everyone at the same level of development. The objective of this study is to investigate the degree to which investigators in science education conceptualize the difference between the epistemic and the psychological subjects. It is argued that just as the ideal gas law (based on the theoretical formulation of Maxwell and Boltzmann) provides a “general model” to which the real gases approximate under different experimental conditions, so we can consider (by abduction) the epistemic subject to be an “ideal knower” to which the real (psychological) subjects approximate to varying degrees. The difference between the epistemic and the psychological subjects, however, cannot be used as an “epistemological shield” in defense of Piagetian theory. Any test of the Piagetian theory must involve psychological or real subjects. Empirical testability, however, need not be equated to being scientific. An analogy is drawn between Galileo's idealization, which led to the discovery of the law of free-fall, and Piaget's epistemic subject. Research conducted in science education shows that at least for some critics the wide variations in the age at which individuals acquire the different Piagetian stages is crucial for rejecting the theory. It is argued that the real issue is not the “proportion of heterogeneity” but the understanding that Piaget, by neglecting individual differences, attempts to build a general model applicable across types of situations/subjects. The distinction between the epistemic and the psychological subjects is important not for defending Piaget's theory (which has serious theoretical flaws) but to understand epistemic transitions, for example, the one between Piaget's epistemic subject and Pascual-Leone's metasubject. It is concluded that failure to understand the distinction between the epistemic and the psychological subjects would lead to misconstruing the significance of our research findings and, what is more serious, to a lack of a historical perspective.     

Developing language and literacy: effective intervention in the early years

Reading Recovery is an early intervention program used around the world for at-risk readers. Developed at a time when constructivist principles dominated educational philosophy, its efficacy has caused debate and division over the last three decades. This qualitative study employed in-depth interviews and observations to explore 10 Reading Recovery teachers' views and experiences about working with the program. Findings revealed that the program was implemented by participants as originally prescribed and its contents were well regarded. However, deeper analysis revealed that Reading Recovery teachers held the view that the program was best suited for children with innocent deficits such as mild maturational delay but were not necessarily confident about its ability to meet the needs of children with various clinical conditions, including specific reading difficulty. Theoretical, ethical and clinical implications are explored regarding the utility of the Reading Recovery program as an early intervention program for low progress readers.     

Changing the Political Culture: The Advisory Group on Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools

This article discusses the background to and deliberations of the Advisory Group on Education for Citizenship and the Teaching Democracy in Schools established by Secretary of State for Education and Employment David Blunkett. The final report of the Advisory Group was published in September 1998. The article discusses the Group's main recommendations. As regards implementation, the article identifies four challenges: curriculum reform, the relationship between schools and communities, the difficulties of citizen life in a globalised context, and the issue of individuals' participation in politics and society.     

‘Meeting initial needs in literacy’ (MINILIT): A ramp to MULTILIT for younger low‐progress readers

Abstract

In spite of serious reservations expressed by reading scientists regarding both its efficacy and its cost effectiveness, for over 20 years Reading Recovery has been promoted internationally as the intervention of choice for young struggling readers. Following a brief review of research on Reading Recovery, several suggestions for improvement are suggested. An alternative small group‐based instructional model (MINILIT) is then described. This provides additional focus on phonemic awareness and allows access to the MULTILIT program for younger struggling readers. The results from two preliminary pilot studies are presented.     

Variables affecting teachers' attitudes towards inclusive education in Bangladesh

Inclusive education is a worldwide reform strategy intended to include students with different abilities in mainstream regular schools. Evidence from previous research shows that success in implementing effective inclusive teaching practices in the school is contingent on teachers' positive attitudes towards inclusive education. This study was conducted in the context of primary education in Bangladesh aiming to examine variables influencing teachers' attitudes towards inclusion of students with disabilities in regular classrooms. Data for the study was collected from 738 teachers working in 293 government primary schools in Bangladesh. The results indicated that perceived school support for inclusive teaching practices and a range of demographic variables including previous success in teaching students with disabilities and contact with a student with a disability were associated with more positive attitudes of the teachers towards the inclusive education. The results are discussed with possible implications for educators, policy‐makers and international organisations working on the implementation of inclusive education.     

The WIT cohort: A case study of informal doctoral mentoring

Concerns about the quality and value of doctoral studies continue to be expressed by various constituencies. Cohort mentoring and professional relevance have been identified as significant opportunities for modernising doctoral education. This case study responds to the need for doctoral reform by exploring the process and outcomes of mentoring on a self-formed educational leadership cohort, a grassroots organisation called the WIT (writers in training) cohort. Analysis of this innovation from the members' perspectives suggests that the cohort mentoring experience serves to enhance individual success and improve a particular graduate context. Results indicate that benefits were gained in three areas of professional growth: developing a sense of identity and belonging, support for learning and attaining dreams and experiencing a faculty-student support model.     

Scaling and Sustaining an Intervention: The Case of Reading Recovery

ABSTRACT

In every school district across the country, every year, initiatives are adopted with the goal of improving the literacy performance of young students, and, just as frequently, these initiatives fail or quickly become passing fads. In this article, Rodgers reviews literature related to scaling educational innovations and describes challenges and barriers to implementing and maintaining evidence-based reform. Using Reading Recovery as a case example, she describes features of the intervention that are thought to be linked to its longevity in terms of scalability and sustainability. She also shares lessons learned from the most recent period of its expansion with the 5-year grant to scale up Reading Recovery across the county. Implications from this article include the importance of adopting an initiative that has a well-articulated design, collecting data on the progress of the students served, and having a person in the district who acts as a redirecting agent, maintaining the design of the initiative and guarding it against tendencies to pare down the design.     

A Critical Analysis of the Sources of Reading Recovery: An Empiricist Perspective

This discussion of the sources of Reading Recovery presents the results of an investigation into whether or not this relatively costly, tutoring remedial reading program, designed for primary-grade students, is based on relevant experimental evidence as to how these students best learn to read. The general finding of the study was that Reading Recovery principles and practices are not based firmly on the experimental evidence that supports the so-called bottom-up model of children's reading development. To the contrary of Reading Recovery, Marie Clay, favors so-called top-down principles and models of reading instruction. Reading Recovery uses several empirically unverified procedures to decide which students are admitted to its tutoring sessions, to determine the progress in reading rehabilitation these tutees make, and to judge when students should be discontinued from Reading Recovery tutelage. The details on the shortcomings of Reading Recovery are judged to be prima facie evidence that it may not be a cost-effective educational innovation. Further authentication in that regard, it is pointed out, are recent studies by disinterested researchers who report that: (a) the initial successes of Reading Recovery in helping disabled readers overcome their handicap are only temporary in nature, and (b) the majority of the precepts and procedures prescribed for Reading Recovery by Marie Clay reflect a top-down orientation to reading development, as does the Whole Language (WL) philosophy of reading attainment. Educators and school boards should take this orientation of Reading Recovery under advisement when considering its purchase, it is urged.     

Scottish education: Beyond devolution

ABSTRACT

Reading Recovery is a highly successful and widely used intervention for children with reading difficulties. However, it is an intensive intervention and some have argued that it is for this reason alone that it is effective. This argument is examined but found to be unsound. The central features of Reading Recovery are then described under the headings of assessment, curriculum and instruction, and the empirical evidence of their value reviewed. Using this method to analyse Reading Recovery as a case‐study of successful intervention certain key elements are revealed. The intensity of the intervention is identified as a necessary but not sufficient ingredient for effective remediation. Other factors of importance are the rigour and focus of assessment, the breadth of the curriculum which includes writing as well as reading, and the quality of instruction.     

Special issue of TEJ: what is to be done with curriculum and educational foundations’ critical knowledges? New qualitative research on conscientizing preservice and in-service teachers

ABSTRACT

In this essay, we provide a brief introductory statement to the special issue of Teaching Education titled What is To Be Done with Curriculum and Educational Foundations’ Critical Knowledges? New Qualitative Research on Conscientizing Preservice and In-Service Teachers. In our introductory statement, we describe the specific aim and broad purposes of the special issue and characterize its contents. Our specific aim with the special issue is to advance the conscientization of preservice and in-service teachers via critical pedagogies and race-based epistemologies. Our broad purposes are to (a) resist the ascendant, whitened, and Eurocentric fascism via our collective pedagogical labor in teacher education and (b) reorient curriculum and educational foundations' critical knowledges toward institutional praxis. We conclude our introductory statement by characterizing the contents of the special issue for teacher educators and teacher education researchers.     

Long‐term outcomes of early reading intervention

This study explores the long‐term effectiveness of two differing models of early intervention for children with reading difficulties: Reading Recovery and a specific phonological training. Approximately 400 children were pre‐tested, 95 were assigned to Reading Recovery, 97 to Phonological Training and the remainder acted as controls. In the short and medium term both interventions significantly improved aspects of children's reading, Reading Recovery having a broader and more powerful effect. In the long‐term, 3½ years after intervention, there were no significant effects on reading overall, though Reading Recovery had a significant effect for a subgroup of children who were complete non‐readers at 6 years old. Phonological Training had a significant effect on spelling. The short and medium‐term effects demonstrate that it is possible substantially to reduce children's reading problems. The long‐term effects raise doubts about relying on early intervention alone.     

The Nurture of Reading: implications for special education

Theoretical frameworks derived from Vygotsky's sociohistorical perspective are seen to offer a way to unify the teaching of reading in special and regular education settings. For example, Clay has recently analysed her Reading Recovery research using the notion of assisted performance. I argue that literacy learning by those who have disabilities is not qualitatively different from that of the majority of students, and may not need different methodologies. Similarly, greater consistency must be sought between home and school efforts to support learning to read and write.     

BOOK REVIEWS

The articles in this issue represent an effort to understand how whiteness as a social construct embodies unique characteristics, behavior, and collective enterprise in the context of schooling. The author's goal in this article is to discuss the notion of whiteness and when possible to comment on the articles of this special issue devoted to the topic. The examination of "whiteness" as a theoretical construct is a relatively new phenomenon in educational research. The fact that "whiteness" has gone unexamined for so long is a function of the power of paradigmatic thinking in the social sciences. The predominant viewpoint in the social sciences has been that people of color lack many of the characteristics associated with being white, thus the focus of scholarship has been on documenting these differences or examining interventions designed to remedy these so-called deficiencies. The articles of this special issue represent an intellectual challenge to this mode of thought.