Development of German reading comprehension in two-way immersive primary schools

Two-way immersion (TWI) is a variant of the increasingly popular bilingual instruction. Most TWI research lacks longitudinal data or the consideration of background variables to control for possible selection effects. This article examines the development of German reading comprehension of TWI students (N = 984) from fourth to sixth grade compared to conventionally taught students (N = 992). The latent growth curve models showed that immersion students reached the same level of German reading comprehension over the three measurement points, even if background variables like first language, socioeconomic background, and cognitive ability were included. Despite reduced instruction in German, TWI students showed the same reading comprehension level as students in regular instruction while having the advantage of learning an additional language. Although the level of reading comprehension differed between language groups (L1 German speakers, L1 partner language speakers, simultaneous bilinguals), the learning trajectories of reading comprehension were similar.     

Quality of Language and Literacy Instruction in Preschool Classrooms Serving At-Risk Pupils

Policy-makers, administrators, researchers, and teachers are increasingly vested in ensuring the quality of preschool instruction, particularly in the areas of language and literacy. This research was conducted to characterize the quality of language and literacy instruction in 135 publicly-funded preschool classrooms serving at-risk pupils. As all teachers in these classrooms were implementing the same language and literacy curriculum, we also studied the interrelationships among procedural fidelity to a prescribed curriculum and the quality of language and literacy instruction, determining whether procedural fidelity is associated or disassociated with quality instruction. Results showed that the quality of language and literacy instruction in classrooms was low, with few teachers delivering high quality instruction. Although teachers were able to implement a prescribed language and literacy curriculum with a high degree of procedural fidelity, this was not associated with quality instruction. Few structural characteristics of classrooms of teachers were systematically associated with quality of instruction. Findings have important implications for professional development of teachers by suggesting a need for a sustained and coherent focus on the process of instruction to elevate instructional quality in language and literacy.     

‘We have our own religion’: a pupil perspective on minority religion and ethics instruction in Finland

The Finnish system of religious education offers instruction in the pupil’s own religion or in ethics throughout comprehensive school. By taking the pupil’s background as a basis for instruction, this system aims at promoting equality and integration with respect to religion and one’s worldview. However, there has been little knowledge about how the system of instruction is experienced by pupils themselves and how it affects pupil’s identities at school. This study illuminates through a participant observation study in grades 1–6 how pupils in five minority instruction groups experience their classes and perceive themselves in relation to other pupils in school. The study shows how working in small groups represents an important element in pupils’ experiences. Pupils generally experienced participation in instruction as positive and fun, but age integration, organisation of schedules and classrooms were also important concerns. Even if pupils were content about having their own instruction group, feelings of otherness and a negative sense of difference in relation to the majority of pupils were found particularly among pupils of religion.     

Acquiring reading and vocabulary in Dutch and English: the effect of concurrent instruction

To investigate the effect of concurrent instruction in Dutch and English on reading acquisition in both languages, 23 pupils were selected from a school with bilingual education, and 23 from a school with education in Dutch only. The pupils had a Dutch majority language background and were comparable with regard to social-economic status (SES). Reading and vocabulary were measured twice within an interval of 1 year in Grade 2 and 3. The bilingual group performed better on most English and some of the Dutch tests. Controlling for general variables and related skills, instruction in English contributed significantly to the prediction of L2 vocabulary and orthographic awareness at the second measurement. As expected, word reading fluency was easier to acquire in Dutch with its relatively transparent orthography in comparison to English with its deep orthography, but the skills intercorrelated highly. With regard to cross-linguistic transfer, orthographic knowledge and reading comprehension in Dutch were positively influenced by bilingual instruction, but there was no indication of generalization to orthographic awareness or knowledge of a language in which no instruction had been given (German). The results of the present study support the assumption that concurrent instruction in Dutch and English has positive effects on the acquisition of L2 English and L1 Dutch.     

A think‐aloud study of strategy use by EFL college readers reading Chinese and English texts

This study used a think‐aloud approach to compare reading strategy use in the first language (L1) and non‐native language (L2) among 36 English as a foreign language (EFL) college students at different reading levels. The participants took an English proficiency test and participated in two individual sessions in which a reading test and a think‐aloud task were administered separately in Chinese and English. Cross‐language transfer theory and the linguistic threshold hypothesis were used to conceptualise the similarities and differences in L1 and L2 reading strategies. This study found more frequent and diverse strategy use in English than in Chinese. Similar patterns of meta‐cognitive strategy use were evident in both languages. The applications of certain meta‐cognitive and support strategies served as indicators that differentiated more‐proficient from less‐proficient readers. The present study extended previous questionnaire studies and suggested that English reading instruction should be informed by this line of research to provide instruction on effective reading strategy use for EFL learners.     

Pupils’ attitudes towards foreign-language learning and the development of literacy skills in bilingual education

The study investigated the effects of bilingual teaching on the development of children's literacy skills and attitudes towards language learning. In the bilingual classes 20% of the instruction was given in English. Pupils’ literacy skills in the bilingual classes were significantly better than in the monolingual classes. When observing pupils who started first grade with either a poor or an excellent level of school readiness, there was no significant difference between bilingual and monolingual groups. In addition, the pupils in bilingual classes showed significantly more positive attitudes towards foreign-language learning than the pupils in monolingual classes.     

Teachers’ use of phonics,knowledge of language constructs,and preferred word identification prompts in relation to beginning readers*

New Zealand’s approach to literacy instruction is predominantly whole language. Explicit code-orientated literacy instruction is not favoured, however, most teachers are believed to include phonics in their literacy lessons. No study has been reported on phonics use in New Zealand schools. Survey responses on the use of phonics instruction from 666 primary school teachers were analysed. We also assessed knowledge of the basic language constructs related to early reading success with 55 teachers participating in a professional development program on literacy teaching. A word identification prompt task based on six common word error scenarios experienced by beginning readers was also administered. Results of the phonics survey revealed that 90% of teachers indicated they used phonics in their literacy instruction. Knowledge of basic language constructs was variable: phonological and phonemic knowledge were generally good, but understanding of phonic and morphological constructs was relatively weak. Only 40% of initial word identification prompts were focussed on word-level information; the remainder (60%) were based on context or were non-specific. The implications of these findings for beginning readers are discussed.     

Literacy skills in Maltese–English bilingual children

This research considers aspects of literacy in Maltese–English bilingual children. The study examined the reading and phonological awareness skills in English and Maltese of children whose home language is Maltese and second language English. A sample of 50 typically developing Maltese pupils aged 8 years 0 months to 10 years 5 months was selected. Since commencing school at the age of 5 years, the children have been learning to read in Maltese and also in English. For the purpose of this study, Maltese reading and reading‐related tests were constructed to parallel the UK and US standardised assessments. The novel tests and the standardised tests were administered to all the children. Results showed that Maltese children read better in their first language (Maltese) than in English, the language of instruction. Findings also showed that phonological awareness measures correlated across first and second languages. The results are discussed in terms of L1 and L2 transfer, whereby the transparency of Maltese orthography and English phonological processing skills facilitate performance on phonological tasks in both Maltese and English.     

Socioeconomic status,parent report of children’s early language skills,and late literacy skills: a long term follow-up study among Chinese children

Previous research on the longitudinal prediction of literacy development has focused mainly on the relationship between early cognitive/language skills and late literacy skills. The present study aimed to test the reliability of a number of measures reported by parents as compared to measuring cognitive and language skills in predicting subsequent reading achievement. Two hundred sixty-two Chinese children were administered four cognitive and language skills over three years at the preliterate stage. Additional information on children’s family socioeconomic status (SES), children’s early language skills, familial reading performance and habits, and familial handedness based on the observations of parents was collected. Performance on these variables in relation to subsequent literacy skills at 11 years of age was examined. SES and children’s early language skills significantly predicted subsequent literacy skills. Even with a number of cognitive and language skills statistically controlled, parental reports of children’s early language skills still contributed to reading comprehension. Poor readers defined at 11 years of age had lagged behind in early language skills, as well as family reading performance and habits, as compared to typically developing readers. These findings suggest that SES and parental estimates of children’s early language skills are useful for predicting children’s subsequent reading achievement.     

Using the Quality of Literacy Implementation Checklist to Improve Preschool Literacy Instruction

Despite much progress in improving the quality of preschool programs, there is still an uneven quality of instruction in early childhood settings. Providing support and professional development (PD) for teachers that is practical, systematic and sustainable is one potential avenue to increase classroom quality in preschool, including quality of literacy instruction. Preschool educators who want to focus on increasing the quality of literacy instruction need simple-to-use tools that can be implemented quickly and provide a means to assess progress towards the goal of improving literacy instruction. The Quality of Literacy Implementation checklist measures how well the teaching staff include intentional, instruction in literacy/oral language. Rather than focusing on a specific curriculum or intervention, quality of implementation focuses on the teacher’s delivery of key procedural features of evidence-based instruction. As is the case with fidelity of implementation, a quality of implementation checklist not only measures implementation but also provides a roadmap about how instruction might be modified to ensure that critical and essential skills are emphasized across the preschool day.     

The Role of First Language Transfer in Second Language Writing and Pedagogical Implications

The influence of first language(L1) involvement in second language(L2) writing has been a theme widely discussed since the research on L2 writing process thrived in the early 1980 s. So far extensive studies have indicated that L2 writing is a bilingual event and the use of L1 is a fairly common strategy among L2 writers. In light of this cognitive characteristic of L2 writing process,a wide range of studies have been carried out,seeking to further reveal what role L1 plays in L2 composing process and how L1 assumes its role during the process. However,there seems to be no consensus reached by the L2 writing researchers so far on whether L1 involvement facilitates or interferes L2 writing,which results in a lot of confusion and frustration in L2 writing teaching practices. Therefore,this paper tries to examine the conflicting views on the role of L1 transfer in L2 writing process and analyze the reasons and theories that may underlie this phenomenon for an attempt to elicit some pedagogical implications for future L2 writing teaching.     

Assessment Data-Informed Guidance to Individualize Kindergarten Reading Instruction: Findings from a Cluster-Randomized Control Field Trial

The purpose of this cluster-randomized control field trial was to was to examine the extent to which kindergarten teachers could learn a promising instructional strategy, wherein kindergarten reading instruction was differentiated based upon students' ongoing assessments of language and literacy skills and documented child characteristic by instruction (CXI) interactions; and to test the efficacy of this differentiated reading instruction on the reading outcomes of students from culturally diverse backgrounds. The study involved 14 schools and included 23 treatment (n = 305 students) and 21 contrast teacher (n = 251 students). Teachers in the contrast condition received only a baseline professional development that included a researcher-delivered summer day-long workshop on individualized instruction. Data sources included parent surveys, individually administered child assessments of language, cognitive, and reading skills and videotapes of classroom instruction. Using Hierarchical Multivariate Linear Modeling (HMLM), we found students in treatment classrooms outperformed students in the contrast classrooms on a latent measure of reading skills, comprised of letter-word reading, decoding, alphabetic knowledge, and phonological awareness (ES = .52). Teachers in both conditions provided small group instruction, but teachers in the treatment condition provided significantly more individualized instruction. Our findings extend research on the efficacy of teachers using Individualized Student Instruction to individualize instruction based upon students' language and literacy skills in first through third grade. Findings are discussed regarding the value of professional development related to differentiating core reading instruction and the challenges of using Response to Intervention approaches to address students' needs in the areas of reading in general education contexts.     

An investigation into the early literacy skills of Grade R Second-language (L2) learners in South Africa

Abstract

Reading proficiency is currently a great concern for South African educators. According to the literature on reading proficiency, reading difficulties stem from early literacy development and any improvement in these early literacy skills may help improve reading proficiency. It has, however also been found that South African learners who participated in this study do not meet the standards for their age group in terms of early literacy development.

Educators need to know what learners should have accomplished in terms of early literacy to support learners before they can commence with instruction in initial reading. Skills crucial for the development of literacy are underlying cognitive skills (i.e., the ability to learn deliberately), the development of symbolic representation, oral language, knowledge of literacy concepts, and behaviours and attitudes. This article looks at the skills required for early literacy development. An empirical investigation was undertaken to determine to what extent these skills were mastered by Grade R second-language (L2) learners. The empirical investigation related these skills to the sub-skills of the School Readiness Evaluation by Trained Testers (SETT) to determine the extent to which a group of Grade R learners have mastered the different skills of early literacy development. The findings paint a bleak picture, since most of the participants lack adequate proficiency regarding the skills of early literacy development.     

Do ‘learners’ always learn? The impact of workplace adult literacy courses on participants’ literacy skills

This paper examines the degree to which British adults participating in workplace literacy courses improved their reading comprehension skills, using longitudinal data which cover the period from enrolment until between two and three years later. Learners were tested using an instrument designed explicitly for adults, with two parallel forms. For those who were native English speakers, there is no evidence of improvement. Learners for whom English was a second language showed modest but statistically significant improvements, but it is impossible to tell whether these were the result of instruction, or of subjects’ longer exposure to an English‐speaking environment. The data were re‐analysed using imputed data, in order to address the problem of missing data, which is common in longitudinal studies, and using multilevel models. The results of these further analyses were the same in all key respects. These findings are important because improvement of adult literacy and numeracy skills has been central to successive governments’ policies for improving both economic productivity and social mobility. Policy‐makers have confounded the acquisition and award of certificates with substantive skill improvement. This study shows that one cannot, in fact, assume that the award of a new qualification indicates that substantive learning has taken place. It also underlines the complexity of reading skills, and the need for long periods of learning and instruction if serious progress is to be made.     

What digital games and literacy have in common: a heuristic for understanding pupils' gaming literacy

This article argues that digital games and school‐based literacy practices have much more in common than is reported in the research literature. We describe the role digital game paratexts – ancillary print and multimodal texts about digital games – can play in connecting pupils’ gaming literacy practices to ‘traditional’ school‐based literacies still needed for academic success. By including the reading, writing and design of digital game paratexts in the literacy curriculum, teachers can actively and legitimately include digital games in their literacy instruction. To help teachers understand pupils’ gaming literacy practices in relation to other forms of literacy practices, we present a heuristic for understanding gaming (HUG) literacy. We argue our heuristic can be used for effective teacher professional development because it assists teachers in identifying the elements of gameplay that would be appropriate for the demands of the literacy curriculum. The heuristic traces gaming literacy across the quadrants of actions, designs, situations and systems to provide teachers and practitioners with a knowledge of gameplay and a metalanguage for talking about digital games. We argue this knowledge will assist them in capitalising on pupils’ existing gaming literacy by connecting their out‐of‐school gaming literacy practices to the literacy and English curriculum.     

小学语文趣味识字教学策略初探

如何提高小学生识字能力,让学生快速、大量识字,为阅读教学和其他教学打下坚实基础,一直是小学语文教师思考的问题。在本文中,笔者就小学语文趣味识字教学策略,提出了识字教育的具体措施,以供业界探讨。     

Literacy Acceleration and the Key Stage 3 English Strategy – comparing two approaches for secondary-age pupils with literacy difficulties

Literacy for pupils in the secondary phase of education is a key concern for practitioners and policy makers alike. Tony Lingard is the SENCo at a large comprehensive school in the south-west of England but he is also involved in staff development and school improvement initiatives across the UK. Literacy Acceleration is an intervention strategy for pupils with literacy difficulties that he and his team at school have been developing over many years. He undertook the research reported in this article at a comprehensive school where Literacy Acceleration was well established and being delivered by experienced staff. The research found that Year 7 and 8 pupils with literacy difficulties who followed Literacy Acceleration made significant progress with reading and spelling while similar pupils, who only had access to National English Strategy classes, did less well over the period of the study. The research also found that most of the pupils who experienced Literacy Acceleration in small groups, as well as mainstream English lessons, preferred being taught in smaller Literacy Acceleration groups where they also felt that they were making more progress. In concluding his article, Tony Lingard argues that pupils with literacy difficulties need specific, targeted interventions and that it may be a mistake to assume that the normal secondary English curriculum effectively meets their needs. This small-scale study therefore offers a challenge to a widely accepted policy. It suggests that abandoning strategies that focus on addressing the particular needs of pupils with literacy difficulties (of which Literacy Acceleration is one example) may not best serve the interests of a significant group of learners.     

Word reading and word spelling in French adult literacy students: the relationship with oral language skills

We analysed word reading and spelling in French adults with low levels of literacy (A‐IL). As well as examining phonological and lexical processes, we explored the relationship between literacy and oral language skills. Fifty‐two adult literacy students were compared with reading level‐matched pupils in Years 1–3 of primary school on reading tasks (pseudoword reading, word reading, text comprehension), spelling tasks (pseudoword spelling, text dictation) and oral language tasks. A‐IL scored the same as children on word reading and spelling but less well on pseudoword reading and spelling. They also produced fewer phonologically acceptable errors in the dictation. Regarding oral language skills, as a group A‐IL encountered greater difficulty in phonology than in morphosyntax and semantics, and correlations revealed strong relationships between literacy levels and oral skills, particularly in the domain of phonology. Within their group, however, A‐IL displayed several distinct language profiles. These could reflect different risk factors leading to functional illiteracy and are discussed regarding the cognitive and environmental causes of impaired reading acquisition.     

Reviewing evidence‐based practice for pupils with dyslexia and literacy difficulties

There is now a strong evidence base from theory and research providing a ‘template’ to inform practice at Wave 2, guiding the design and implementation of time‐limited effective early intervention programmes for pupils identified as ‘at risk’ of reading difficulties following initial literacy instruction (Rose, 2009). In contrast, there is currently an absence of evidence to guide the more fine‐grained selection and design of specific interventions (Wave 3) for those nonresponders to otherwise effective reading intervention. In this paper, we first outline our current understanding of the characteristics of effective early intervention programmes, and of the pupils who do not respond. Three theoretically motivated single‐case studies from developmental theory and processing models of skilled performance are then considered as a source of evidence providing useful insights into the type of assessment needed to inform the planning of highly individualised intervention programmes for pupils with severe and persisting literacy difficulties.     

The impact of L1 writing system on ESL knowledge of vowel and consonant spellings

Orthographic knowledge, the general ability to learn, store, and use information about the orthographic form of words (Stanovich & West, 1989), is a crucial skill for supporting literacy. Although the development of first language (L1) orthographic awareness is impacted by the characteristics of a learner’s L1 writing system, relatively little is known about what impact the L1 may have on second language (L2) orthographic awareness. In this study, English language learners from three L1s (French, Hebrew, Mandarin Chinese), plus L1 English speakers, were tested on their English spelling knowledge using a word-pseudohomophone discrimination task. In addition to allowing for the cross-linguistic comparisons, items were designed to examine whether learners had differing performance on pseudohomophones (misspellings) that targeted vowels versus consonants. Consistent with previous research (e.g., McBride-Chang, Bialystok, Cong, & Li, 2004), the L1 Chinese speakers had the highest (L2) accuracy, followed by the L1 Hebrew and the L1 French speakers. The participants from non-alphabetic languages (Hebrew and Chinese) had significantly lower accuracy on items with misspellings involving vowels compared to consonants, and the size of the vowel-consonant accuracy difference varied substantially across L1 groups. The results demonstrate that the characteristics of a learner’s L1 writing system, particularly the existence of vowel and consonant graphemes, impact the development of L2 orthographic knowledge and sensitivity to different types of word misspellings.