SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ ETHICAL STRAIN AND RUMINATION: INDIVIDUAL PROFILES AND THEIR ASSOCIATIONS WITH WEEKLY WELL‐BEING

We investigated school psychologists’ experiences of ethical strain (the frequency of ethical dilemmas at work and the stress caused by these dilemmas) and dilemma‐related rumination outside working hours. Individual latent profiles were estimated at the study baseline based on these three dimensions. The psychologists’ weekly well‐being (vigor, exhaustion, and sleep quality) was compared against their profile during the following three working weeks. The sample included 133 school psychologists, among whom four groups were identified: Low ruminators (39%), an Intermediate group (39%), High ruminators (20%), and Atypical outliers (2%). High ruminators fared least well in terms of weekly well‐being. Of all the groups, they reported the lowest levels of vigor, the highest levels of exhaustion, and the lowest sleep quality. The study contributes to understanding how psychologists differ in their experiences of ethical strain, and highlights the role of ruminating: mental detachment from ethical demands is especially important for school psychologists’ well‐being.     

Job satisfaction,burnout, and perceived effectiveness of “in‐house” versus traditional school psychologists

The present study examined whether school psychologists who serve a single school (“In‐House” group) differed from school psychologists who serve several schools concurrently (“Traditional” group) in the three areas of job satisfaction, burnout, and effectiveness as perceived by the school psychologist. A total of 63 school psychology practitioners were surveyed using a 28‐item questionnaire developed specifically for this study that yielded scores for Job Satisfaction, Burnout, and Perceived Effectiveness. Results of a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that the In‐House group reported higher rates of satisfaction and perceived effectiveness and lower rates of burnout than did the traditional group. Items that distinguished between the two groups related to job diversity, caseload, others' familiarity with the school psychologist, the school psychologists' level of integration into school activities, and administrators' knowledge about the school psychologists' capabilities. Suggestions for further research and implications for current practice are discussed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 40: 237–243, 2003.     

Stressors,Self‐Efficacy,Coping Resources,and Burnout among Secondary School Teachers in Spain

The relationships among teacher occupational stressors, self‐efficacy, coping resources, and burnout were investigated in a sample of 247 Spanish secondary school teachers. Concretely, two specific aims were formulated in order to examine the effect of teaching stressors on teacher burnout and the role of self‐efficacy and school coping resources as mediator or moderator variables in the stressor–burnout relationship. Teachers reported that when their pedagogical practice in the school setting was being interfered with or hindered by a set of factors from the multiple contexts involved in students’ learning, problems of burnout occurred. In addition, results revealed that teachers with a high level of self‐efficacy and more coping resources reported suffering less stress and burnout than teachers with a low level of self‐efficacy and fewer coping resources, and vice versa.     

A national survey of burnout among school psychologists

The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlates of burnout in a national sample of school psychologists. A stress questionnaire, demographic information sheet, and Maslach Burnout Inventory were mailed to 600 randomly selected members of the National Association of School Psychologists. A total of 234 practitioners comprised the final sample. The results indicated that burnout was related to demographic (e.g., age), environmental (e.g., role definitions), and professional activity (e.g., role diversity) variables. Implications for the field of school psychology and future research are discussed.     

Professionals under stress: A review of burnout among the helping professions with implications for school psychologists

Based upon a review of the literature regarding burnout among the helping professions, this article discusses organizational, interpersonal, and intrapersonal conditions that may create or exacerbate problems of burnout among school psychologists. Suggestions for coping with burnout in school settings are presented. The need for a research agenda related to burnout among school psychologists is underscored.     

Stress and Burnout in Teachers

The purpose of this study was to determine causes of, and differences in, stress and burnout in 405 middle, upper, high school and sixth form college teachers in one Local Education Authority in England. Stress and bumout were generally low, but individual, e.g. locus of control, stability of personality; environmental, e.g. too much work, taking extra‐curricular activities, taking work home to do more often; and psychological, e.g. role conflict, role ambiguity; variables correlated with stress and burnout. Multiple regression analyses showed that high anxiety, spending more hours on work at home each time it was taken home and high role conflict collectively predicted stress, and high anxiety and high role conflict collectively predicted bumout. Role conflict, locus of control, stability of personality and anxiety were among the variables that accounted for significant differences in stress and bumout. There were no significant differences between headteachers and subject teachers or men and women on stress or bumout. Results indicated that although individual stress and burnout management is important, elimination of stress and burnout will not be possible without action to reduce/ eliminate environmental Stressors. Further studies could include case studies of a particular school, or studies of stress in students to determine whether it is possible to anticipate who is more likely to experience stress and burnout.     

Opportunities for school psychologists in rural school settings

Rural school psychologists from California, Georgia, Indiana, and Iowa were mailed questionnaires asking them to describe the advantages of practicing school psychology in rural school settings. Three main clusters of responses emerged, including: close contact and good working relationships with teachers, administrators, and parents; role diversity and autonomy; and positive environmental context. Levels of job satisfaction also were investigated. A total of 59% of the psychologists reported high or very high job satisfaction, while 33% reported an average level of satisfaction, and only 8% reported a low level of satisfaction.     

ADMINISTRATIVE PRESSURE TO PRACTICE UNETHICALLY AND BURNOUT WITHIN THE PROFESSION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

This investigation involved the surveying of school psychology practitioners (N = 291) to determine the possible existence of a relationship between administrative pressure to practice unethically and impaired occupational health, as manifested in elevated levels of burnout, job dissatisfaction, and intent to exit the workforce. Almost one‐third of participants claimed to have been pressured to behave unethically, with directives most commonly consisting of instructions to withhold recommendations for support services and to agree with inappropriate special education placement decisions. Practitioners who experienced administrative pressure reported higher levels of burnout, less satisfaction with their current position and the profession, and a greater desire to leave their job and the field of school psychology. The findings are presented within the context of current and projected shortages of practicing school psychologists. Implications for preventing burnout and promoting school psychologists’ occupational well‐being are discussed.     

Role and function of school psychologists, 1992–93: A comparative study

The roles and functions of 52 school psychologists from Iowa and Tennessee were examined. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test differences between reported time spent on prereferral, assessment, intervention, consultation, and curriculum-based assessment. Significant differences were found for the time spent in all areas. A second one-way MANOVA was used to test the differences between the two groups in reported actual time spent and desired time spent. A significant difference was found for consultation. A third MANOVA was utilized to test the differences between the two groups' desired time spent on the five variables. A significant difference was found for curriculum-based assessment. The results suggest that school psychologists in Tennessee and Iowa occupy different roles. School psychologists in Tennessee reported spending the majority of their time on assessment activities, whereas the Iowa sample balances their time between the five functions. The Iowa role exemplifies alternative functions for school psychologists. The Tennessee role is oriented more toward the refer, test, place model.     

Actual/Desired role functioning,perceived control over role functioning,and job satisfaction among school psychologists

This study utilized the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and a demographic data form to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and actual/desired role functioning and perceived control over role functioning among a population of school psychologists. Results indicated that school psychologists spend more time in assessment activities than they desire to and less time in consultation, counseling, and research than they desire to. Both discrepancy between actual and desired role functioning and perceived control over role functioning were found to be significantly associated with job satisfaction. Role function and perceived control variables combined accounted for almost half of the job satisfaction variance. Four role function variables emerged as significant predictors of job satisfaction: discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in assessment, discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in clerical activities, actual time spent in research, and discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in research. Results are discussed in terms of their practical significance for practicing school psychologists.     

Predictors of classroom stress and burnout experienced by gifted and talented students

Classroom stress and burnout experienced by 121 gifted and talented students were assessed in combination with seven background variables (i.e., sex, age, IQ, etc.), five personal variables (i.e., creative personality typology, locus of control, family environment, other-rated behavioral, academic self-esteem, and self-rated self-esteem), three general anxiety and stress variables (i.e., state/trait anxiety, life change events), and two organizational variables (i.e., classroom tedium and quality of school life). The student's age, sex, birth order, IQ, and achievement level bore little relationship to either stress or burnout. Poor self-esteem, an externalized locus of control, high levels of state and trait anxiety, poor school life quality, and tedium proved to be significant predictors of classroom stress. These, plus problems in the family environment and high classroom stress levels, predicted significant levels of classroom burnout. Males reported a greater number and different types of stress and burnout sources than did females, indicating differentiated sex-related problems with stress and burnout.     

Burnout,Job Satisfaction and Instructional Assignment‐related Sources of Stress in Greek Special Education Teachers

In the literature concerning Greek special education teachers, there is little evidence regarding the perceived levels of burnout, job satisfaction, and job‐related stress factors. The present study focused on the above issues. A sample of 127 Greek special education teachers at the primary school level was tested with the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Employee Satisfaction Inventory, and the Inventory of Job‐related Stress Factors (an instrument created for this study). Results indicated that Greek special education teachers reported average to low levels of burnout. They reported moderately high levels of satisfaction with their job, the principal, and the school organisation as a whole; they also reported average satisfaction with work conditions and low satisfaction with prospects of promotion and pay. Four factors were identified on the job‐related stress factors: teaching in a multi‐category classroom, programme organisation and implementation, assessment of students, and collaborations with other special education experts and parents. The special education teachers perceived none of these issues as particularly overwhelming. Moreover, few significant effects of age, gender, and family status were identified. The above results are consistent with other studies that have focused on Greek regular education teachers, which have indicated that, in general, this group do not experience high levels of occupational stress.     

西北民族地区中学生生活事件和应对方式对学习倦怠的影响

采用青少年生活事件量表、应对方式问卷、学习倦怠量表对西北少数民族地区1300名中学生进行调查,探讨少数民族地区中学生生活事件和应对方式对学习倦怠的影响及其机制。研究结果表明,西北少数民族地区中学生的学习倦怠处于较低的水平,学习压力对学习倦怠有非常显著的预测作用,自责对学习倦怠的解释量最大,生活事件不仅直接作用于学习倦怠,同时还通过应对方式对学习倦怠产生影响,模型拟合度较好。研究还就如何改善学生的学习倦怠提出了对策,如应减轻中学生课业负担、加强对中学生应对方式的训练等。     

Behavioral objectives for psychological consultation in the school as evaluated by teachers and school psychologists

A set of behavioral objectives was developed for the consultant role of the school psychologist, based on Meyers' consultation model. A Likert-type questionnaire was developed to assess the degree to which teachers and school psychologists agreed upon the desirability and the actual accomplishment of these objectives. Based on a sample of 120 teachers and 83 school psychologists, it was found that both groups perceived a difference between the “desired” role and the role that school psychologists actually fulfill. However, there were also significant differences between teachers' and school psychologists' rating of the “actual” role, the school psychologists' rating agreeing more with the consultation model. Examination of individual items showed greater acceptance of objectives relating to Meyers' level of indirect service to the child, and less acceptance of Meyers' levels of direct service to the teacher and service to the school system.     

School climate factors relating to teacher burnout: A mediator model

The present study investigated components of school climate (i.e. parent/community relations, administration, student behavioral values) and assessed their influence on the core burnout dimensions of Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and feelings of low Personal Accomplishment. The study weighed the relative contributions of demographic factors (i.e. gender, age, years of teaching experience), teacher satisfaction, and teacher-rated school climate that predict resultant levels of teacher stress and burnout from 17 rural schools in southeastern Ohio. Results revealed that different aspects of school climate related to each of the three primary burnout dimensions. Further, the inverse relationship between school climate and burnout was mediated by teacher satisfaction levels for both Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization dimensions. Results from the present study may be used in the development of future intervention targets for reducing teacher stress and burnout.     

Correlates of vocational practice among school psychologists

This study surveyed 362 school psychologists to: (a) identify the percentages of school psychologists who have had some involvement in the practices of vocational assessment, vocational counseling, consultation with vocational education teachers, and vocational program or curriculum development, and (b) identify factors that are associated with such vocational involvement. Results indicated that 30–40% of those school psychologists surveyed reported some involvement in vocational assessment, vocational counseling, and consultation with vocational education teachers, while only 12% indicated involvement with vocational program or curriculum development. Sex, experience, salary, perceived control over role functioning, and involvement in practices other than traditional assessment were found to be associated with increased involvement in vocational activities. Results also indicated that school psychologists who were certified guidance counselors, and who were members of the American Association of Counseling and Development, were more likely to be involved in vocational practices than were school psychologists who were not so certified or affiliated. Results are discussed in terms of their implication for involving greater numbers of school psychologists in vocational practices.     

Stress, Burnout and Workload in Teachers of Children with Special Educational Needs

Whilst stress in teaching has received much attention in recent years, for teachers of children with special educational needs (SEN) specific stress-related research is relatively rare. This study sought to address this issue by investigating stress, burnout and workload in teachers of children with special educational needs. A postal questionnaire was sent to 56 ordinary schools and eight schools for children with moderate learning difficulties (MLD), eight for children with severe learning difficulties (SLD) and eight for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). The schools were situated in inner city, urban and rural areas in the south-east of England. A total of 221 teachers responded. Results indicated that, whilst generalised claims for burnout may not be justified, within all three special school settings there was evidence of a high level of emotional exhaustion as measured by the education version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). In addition, all groups were subject to long hours of work, and work overload was high for ordinary school SEN teachers and teachers working in MLD and SLD settings. Reference to sources of intense stress indicated some differences according to setting but generally implicated workload and challenging behaviour. The conclusions are that further research into stress and burnout of SEN teachers is required if effective coping and preventative strategies are to be designed.     

Role Stress Among Practicing School Counselors

Practicing school counselors (N = 512) were surveyed, using the Role Questionnaire (J. R. Rizzo, R. J. House, & S. I. Lirtzman, 1970), to determine levels of role conflict, role incongruence, and role ambiguity. Additionally, 8 characteristics of the participants' positions as school counselors were examined to determine what factors might affect role stress. Data were examined for the total group and by school level. Elementary school counselors were found to have lower levels of role conflict and role incongruence than high school counselors. Believing that the job matched their initial perceptions, that they were adequately trained, and that peer supervision was available were predictors of reduced role stress among the group and for various school level subgroups.     

School psychologists and suicide risk assessment: Role perception and competency

As the second leading cause of death for adolescents, suicide is a major concern for school personnel. School psychologists' training in mental health makes them well-positioned to lead in suicide prevention efforts; however, studies have shown a lack of preparedness in crisis intervention and, more specifically, suicide risk assessment. This study surveyed practicing school psychologists (N = 92) to explore their perception of both their role and competency in suicide risk assessment. Suicide risk assessment was defined as a broad term pertaining to any measures taken in suicide prevention, intervention, or postvention. The majority of school psychologists reported having a primary role at the tertiary level (i.e., intervening with a student identified as needing help). Participants indicated lacking adequate graduate preparation; however, most participants were confident in their knowledge of suicide and suicide risk assessment and were comfortable identifying and intervening with a student who is suicidal. Implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.     

Doctoral and nondoctoral practicing school psychologists: Are there differences?

The purpose of this study was to examine and describe differences between doctoral and nondoctoral practicing school psychologists. Participants selected for the study were school psychologists who were full-time practitioners in a school setting. The sample was randomly selected from the 1992 National Association of School Psychologists Membership Database. Four hundred forty persons were selected to serve as a sample of the NASP membership, and 359 responded to the survey. Of those that responded, 232 were full-time practitioners employed in the schools and formed the sample used in the data analysis. Overall, doctoral and nondoctoral school psychologists were very much alike in terms of age, gender, and years of experience. Doctoral level school psychologists were more likely to be employed in urban areas. Both groups spend a similar amount of time participating in seven different job activities. Doctoral and nondoctoral level practitioners working in schools maintain high levels of job satisfaction and the majority intend to remain in their current position and the profession for the next five years. Higher salaries and an increased likelihood of having a private practice outside of school are the major differences between doctoral and nondoctoral school psychologists practicing in the schools. Future evolution of the role of school psychologists may allow for the increased use of the advanced skills obtained by doctoral level school psychologists. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.