The evolution of creativity,giftedness, and multiple intelligences: An interview with Ellen winner and Howard Gardner

This article describes a training program in analogical reasoning skills based on Sternberg's componential processes research. Students are first taught how to apply the processes of encoding, inferring, mapping and applying in the solution of linguistic and nonlinguistic analogies of the A:B::C:D type. Then, they apply these components in the processing of extended linguistic analogies developed in sentence, paragraph, and story form. Finally, several weeks are spent teaching students the utility of these same components and analogical reasoning to their performance in the content areas.     

Kindergarten children's symbolic number comparison skills relates to 1st grade mathematics achievement: Evidence from a two-minute paper-and-pencil test

Basic numerical skills provide an important foundation for the learning of mathematics. Thus, it is critical that researchers and educators have access to valid and reliable ways of assessing young children's numerical skills. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the concurrent, predictive, and incremental validity of a two-minute paper-and-pencil measure of children's symbolic (Arabic numerals) and non-symbolic (dot arrays) comparison skills. A sample of kindergarten children (M_age = 5.86, N = 439) were assessed on the measure along with a number line estimation task, a measure of arithmetic, and several control measures. Results indicated that performance on the symbolic comparison task explained unique variance in children's arithmetic performance in kindergarten. Longitudinal analyses demonstrated that both symbolic comparison and number line estimation in kindergarten were independent predictors of 1st grade mathematics achievement. However, only symbolic comparison remained a unique predictor once language skills and processing speed were taken into account. These results suggest that a two-minute paper-and-pencil measure of children's symbolic number comparison is a reliable predictor of children's early mathematics performance.     

A validation study of the thinking styles inventory: Implications for gifted education

This study examined internal and external validity of the Thinking Styles Inventory (TSI) developed by Sternberg and Wagner (1991) within the framework of Sternberg's (1988) theory of mental self‐government. Participants were 96 adolescent students who were in a summer residential program at the time of testing. The results provide evidence of the external discriminant validity, but only lend partial support to the internal validity of the instrument, suggesting the need to theoretically clarify the relationships between and among posited thinking styles as well as empirically test the validity of these thinking styles measures. Implications of thinking styles for gifted education are discussed.     

Field Dependence Revisited I: Intelligence

This paper addresses a central problem for the theory of field dependence-its relationship with intelligence. Measures of field dependence (e.g. the Embedded Figures Test, EFT) are often found unable to display discriminant validity with conventional intelligence tests. Field independence is often associated with higher intelligence. This has resulted in an unhelpful see-saw debate as to whether field independence is, or is not, another manifestation of greater intelligence. Furthermore, they have only been able to discuss the quantitative differences between the styles. This paper is divided into three parts. Firstly, it examines research between field dependence and psychometrical intelligence, including a recent study which uses the Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA) and compares the results with the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) to address the issue of whether the EFT is a valid measure of field dependence theory. The main part presents an argument for seeking a relationship with the componential subtheory of the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg, 1985a), which may have greater potential for describing qualitative differences in intellectual functioning. It is proposed that field-independents may be associated with a heuristic routine that gives priority to selective encoding and selective comparing. By contrast, field-dependents may give priority to selective combining and selective comparing. The third part of the paper offers a brief summary of a study which empirically explores these proposed associations using both the EFT and CSA to measure FI. The findings reveal that, in both cases, some degree of functional association is found. However, the relationship is stronger with the latter measure. The conclusion of the paper is that Witkin's theory of field dependence may be usefully observed and informed through Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.     

Growth in emotion understanding across early childhood: A cohort-sequential model of firstborn children across the transition to siblinghood

Emotion understanding develops rapidly in early childhood. Firstborn children (N = 231, 55% girls/45% boys, 86% White, 5% Black, 3% Asian, 4% Latinx, M_age = 29.92 months) were recruited into a longitudinal study from 2004 to 2008 in the United States and administered a series of tasks assessing eight components of young children's emotion understanding from ages 1 to 5. Cohort sequential analysis across three cohorts (1-, 2-, and 3-year-olds) demonstrated a progression of children's emotion understanding from basic emotion identification to an understanding of false-belief emotions, even after controlling for children's verbal ability. Emotion understanding scores were related to children's theory of mind and parent reports of empathy, but not emotional reactivity, providing evidence of both convergent and discriminant validity.     

Preliminary construct and concurrent validity of the Preschool Self-regulation Assessment (PSRA) for field-based research

This study introduces a portable direct assessment of young children's self-regulation—the Preschool Self-Regulation Assessment (PSRA). The PSRA was designed to assess self-regulation in emotional, attentional, and behavioral domains by using a brief, structured battery of tasks in conjunction with a global report of children's behavior. Factor analyses from a pilot sample (N = 63) of Head Start children revealed two self-regulation factors reflecting children's performance on tasks of impulse control and tasks of compliance/executive control. Assessor report of children's behavior during the assessment was reduced into two additional factors reflecting children's global attention/impulse control and positive emotion. Moderate correlations between self-regulation factors and children's social competence, behavior problems, and early academic skills, provide preliminary evidence of the new measure's validity, and additional empirical evidence for bivariate relations between academic and self-regulatory competence.     

Behavioral self-regulation and relations to emergent academic skills among children in Germany and Iceland

The present study investigated a direct assessment of behavioral self-regulation (the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders; HTKS) and its contribution to early academic achievement among young children in Germany and Iceland. The authors examined the psychometric properties and construct validity of the HTKS, investigated gender differences in young children's behavioral self-regulation, and explored relations between the HTKS and a teacher report of behavioral self-regulation (the Child Behavior Rating Scale; CBRS) and emerging academic skills. Findings supported the construct validity of the HTKS when used with young German and Icelandic children. Multilevel analyses revealed gender differences, particularly on the CBRS teacher-rated measure. Finally, higher levels of behavioral self-regulation were related to higher academic skills after important background variables were controlled, although some cross-cultural differences in the predictive utility of the HTKS and CBRS were observed. Overall, these results extend prior psychometric work on the HTKS to samples of young European children and support the importance of understanding of the role behavioral self-regulation in young children's development.     

Understanding Early Elementary Children's Conceptual Knowledge of Plant Structure and Function through Drawings

This study examined children''s drawings to explain children''s conceptual understanding of plant structure and function. The study explored whether the children''s drawings accurately reflect their conceptual understanding about plants in a manner that can be interpreted by others. Drawing, survey, interview, and observational data were collected from 182 students in grades K and 1 in rural southeastern United States. Results demonstrated the children held a wide range of conceptions concerning plant structure and function. These young children held very simple ideas about plants with respect to both their structure and function. Consistent with the drawings, the interviews presented similar findings.     

Uncovering young children's motivational beliefs about learning science

Young children, ages 5–6 years, develop first beliefs about science and themselves as science learners, and these beliefs are considered important precursors of children's future motivation to pursue science. Yet, due to a lack of adequate measures, little is known about young children's motivational beliefs about learning science. The present two‐part study explores the motivational beliefs of young children using a new measure—the Young Children's Science Motivation (Y‐CSM) scale. Initial measurement development involved a thorough literature review of existing measures, and an extensive piloting phase until a final instrument was reached. To establish scale reliability, measurement invariance as well construct and criterion validity, the final instrument was administered to a new sample of 277 young children, age 5–6 years, in northern Germany. Results reveal that children's motivational beliefs can be empirically differentiated into their self‐confidence and enjoyment in science at this young age. Older children were more motivated in science, but no significant gender differences were found. Importantly, children in preschools with a science focus reported significantly higher science motivation. This finding stresses the importance of early science education for the development of children's motivational beliefs science.     

How Young Children Construe Pain Experienced by Self and Others: A Case of Naive Theory

We investigated young children's construal of pain in relation to (a) the self, (b) other humans, and (c) animals, plants, and objects, to elucidate children's cognitive understanding of this complex, abstract, subjective concept. We interviewed 17 Kindergarten students using a variety of non-painful stimuli and procedures to prompt discussion of pain's causes, consequences, intensity, contagion, and treatment. Findings suggest that young children use naive theory to describe pain that only partly agree with canonic knowledge and were cognizance of the need to treat pain and cope with it. Awareness of children's construal of pain may promote caregivers' and teachers' ability to effectively treat pain-related situations and contribute to the design of a relevant curriculum for enhancing their knowledge about pain.     

The Individualized Classroom Assessment Scoring System (inCLASS): Preliminary reliability and validity of a system for observing preschoolers’ competence in classroom interactions

This paper introduces the Individualized Classroom Assessment Scoring System (inCLASS), an observation tool that targets children's interactions in preschool classrooms with teachers, peers, and tasks. In particular, initial evidence is reported of the extent to which the inCLASS meets the following psychometric criteria: inter-rater reliability, normal distributions and adequate range, construct validity, and validity. These initial findings suggest that the inCLASS has the potential to provide an authentic, contextualized assessment of young children's classroom behaviors. Future directions for research with the inCLASS are discussed.     

Mapping Students' Lives: Children's Geographies,Teaching and Learning

The relatively new field of children's geographies builds on the theoretical foundations of human geography, critical geography, and spatial theories to examine the places and spaces children inhabit and create. This article reviews four major themes in children's geographies relevant to education: exclusion and agency, the social construction of childhood, children's geographies across the globe, and children's spaces beyond the classroom. Children's geographies' unique perspective on the spatial experiences of young people offers new ways to understand issues in education theory, pedagogy, and practice.     

Self-regulation and metacognition in young children's self-initiated play and Reflective Dialogue

This paper looks at ways in which a group of children aged three–four years exhibited evidence of self-regulation and metacognition. Videotaped episodes of children's activities and audiotaped dialogues between children and practitioners about the activities were analysed using an observational framework. The data here show children of three and four displaying extensive evidence of metacognitive and self-regulatory behaviour, with similar mean levels of frequency across both activities and dialogues. However, whilst the majority of evidence from the activities was of metacognitive regulation and skilfulness, that from the dialogues showed more evidence of metacognitive knowledge. It is also suggested that different social contexts may influence children's opportunities to develop and display self-regulation. The use of video data and opportunities for young children to reflect on their activities are suggested as valuable tools for research and pedagogical purposes, and as an effective means of eliciting young children's perspectives on their lives.     

Validity of the children's orientation to book reading rating scale

The present study investigates the validity of a 4‐point rating scale used to measure the level of preschool children's orientation to literacy during shared book reading. Validity was explored by (a) comparing the children's level of literacy orientation as measured with the Children's Orientation to Book Reading Rating Scale (COB) with a teacher's rating of a child's level of attention and effortful control on the Children's Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ), and (b) computing the predictive validity of a child's COB rating with overall levels of emergent literacy at the end of the preschool school year. This study involved 46 preschool children from low‐income backgrounds; children's literacy orientation was rated during a group teacher‐led book reading. Children's ratings of literacy orientation during shared book reading using the global 4‐point COB scale were significantly correlated with teacher ratings of a child's attention and effortful control as measured on the CBQ. Hierarchical regression results indicated children's literacy orientation significantly predicted children's end‐of‐year alphabet knowledge and overall emergent reading skills above and beyond the variance contributed by children's language skills and family income. The validity of a global rating for indexing children's level of literacy orientation was supported. Educational implications and recommendations for the COB as a component of early literacy assessment are discussed.     

‘Brown Paper Packages’? A Sociocultural Perspective on Young Children's Ideas in Science

How do we see young children's thinking in science? Is it, as much previous research has led us to believe, that their ideas can be neatly boxed like “brown paper packages tied up with strings” – as the song from The Sound of Music goes? Or are their ideas like “wild geese that fly with the moon on their wings” (Sound of Music): fluid, complex, rich.?.?.? Drawing on the author's research into young children's ideas about natural phenomena such as the rain and clouds, and on Rogoff's three foci of analysis (personal, interpersonal and contextual), this paper illustrates how a consideration of sociocultural theory can be useful in framing research with young children, and allow us to see beyond the boxes. Emphasis is placed on recognising that children's thinking in science is embedded within particular sociocultural contexts, is guided by others and integrated with their use of certain mental and physical cultural tools. Thus, the article aims to present an alternative method for the generation of data on young children's thinking. Specific analysis of this data will, it is intended, be presented in a subsequent article.     

Does Parent–Child Discussion of Peer Provocations Reduce Young Children's Hostile Attributional Bias?

Two studies investigated whether parent–child discussion of peer provocations reduces young children's hostile attributional bias. Study 1 (N = 109, age 4–7)—an observational study—showed that parent–child discussion of nonhostile attributions (when reading a picture book) predicted reductions in children's hostile attributional bias from pre‐ to postdiscussion. Study 2 (N = 160, age 4–6)—an experimental study—showed that stimulating parents to discuss either nonhostile attributions or normative beliefs (vs. a control condition) reduced children's hostile attributional bias in response to hypothetical vignettes, but not in response to a staged peer provocation. These findings suggest that by framing social situations, parents may help their children perceive less hostility in their social worlds.     

US and Turkish preschoolers’ observational knowledge of astronomy

The purpose of this cross-cultural study was to describe and compare US and Turkish children's observational knowledge of the day and night cycle and to identify similarities predicted by framework theory. Fifty-six (27 US and 29 Turkish) young children (ages 48–60 months) participated in the study. Semi-structured interviews were individually conducted, digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using the constant comparative method. The results demonstrate that preschoolers from the two cultures are able to make comparable informal observations of the sky, and their observational knowledge includes many similarities, with one exception, as predicted by framework theory. US children were more likely to perform better than the Turkish children on the question about the time of observation for the moon. Although science concepts and skills are better represented in US early childhood education programs than the Turkish program, the results suggest that this advantage did not translate into performance differences between US and Turkish children.     

Responding to children's drawings

This article aims to explore the issues that face primary school teachers when responding to children's drawings. Assessment in art and design is an ongoing concern for teachers with limited experience and confidence in the area and, although children's drawings continue to be a focus of much research, the question of what it is that teachers say to young children that has a positive impact on the development of their drawing is under-explored. The article aims to identify the components of what constitutes children's competence in observational drawing through a detailed analysis of a drawing made by a 6-year-old child. Connections between the teaching of drawing and the teaching of literacy are highlighted, and the article concludes that children who are able make confident representations of the visual world are better placed to express their own ideas, thoughts and experiences through art.     

Wisdom in the Wild

Robert Sternberg's (2001) balance theory of wisdom accommodates important aspects of wisdom, and the educational intervention he is developing from the theory seems likely to yield a positive impact. One natural objection to the theory is that it does not predict wise solutions to particular problems. This objection seems misplaced; theories of mental capabilities do not generally predict particular solutions. Another concern argues that the balance theory and intervention focus on detached judgment, neglecting seeing past one's blind spots and acting wisely. This is a serious reservation, although certainly one that can be addressed.