Improving Latino,English language learners' reading fluency: The effects of small‐group and one‐on‐one intervention

Reading fluency is a critical yet commonly neglected component of early reading instruction. For the large percentage of English language learners (ELLs) who are struggling with or at risk for reading difficulties, there is insufficient research available to help educators implement time‐efficient interventions with these students. Using an experimental design common in field‐based research, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the differential effects of a one‐on‐one (1/1) and small‐group (SG) reading fluency intervention, both implemented with Spanish‐speaking ELLs. Using three forms of data‐analytic strategies (visual analysis, standard error of measurement, and randomization tests), results showed that nearly all students benefitted from the 1/1 intervention, and two students clearly benefitted from the SG intervention. Standardized reading assessments also demonstrated the positive impact of students receiving the interventions. Implications of these findings are primarily discussed with respect to school‐based practice. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Parent‐implemented reading interventions within a response to intervention framework

This study tested the effects of parent‐implemented reading interventions on four elementary students’ reading fluency. Student participants had been receiving a Tier 2 reading intervention, but they were not responding favorably to the Tier 2 intervention. A consultant conducted brief experimental analyses of reading interventions and identified a Tier 3 intervention for each student. Then, the consultant trained the students’ mothers to implement the interventions at home. The interventions were tested via a multiple baseline design across students. During the intervention phase, the consultant monitored parents’ treatment integrity and assessed students’ oral reading fluency for novel, grade‐level progress monitoring passages. Visual analysis indicates that all four students demonstrated increases in oral reading fluency for instructional passages and novel progress monitoring passages after intervention implementation. In addition, single‐case design effect sizes indicate strong effects for instructional passages for all four students, moderate effects for novel progress monitoring passages for two students, and strong effects for novel progress monitoring passages for two students. Finally, parents implemented interventions with moderate to high integrity, and parents rated the interventions as acceptable. Results are discussed in terms of implications for research and practice as they relate to parent‐implemented interventions within a response to intervention framework.     

Developing cognitive‐social‐emotional competencies to enhance academic learning

This preliminary study examined intervention effects of a universal prevention program offered by classroom teachers to public elementary school students. The Unique Minds School Program (M.B. Stern, 1999) is a teacher‐led program designed to promote cognitive‐social‐emotional (CSE) skills, including student self‐efficacy, problem solving, social‐emotional competence, and a positive classroom climate, with the dual goal of preventing youth behavioral problems and promoting academic learning. During 2 consecutive school years, 119 students and their teachers were assessed in the fall and spring of Grade 4 and again in the spring of Grade 5. As compared to students in the comparison school, students in the intervention showed gains in student self‐efficacy, problem solving, social‐emotional competencies, and math grades. Incremental gains within CSE domains were found after 1 and 2 years of intervention. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 405–417, 2005.     

A classwide peer‐modeling intervention package to increase on‐task behavior

Evidence‐based classwide interventions have the potential to help a large number of students by preventing problem behaviors before they become a significant problem in the classroom. Results of a study examining the effectiveness of a classwide peer‐modeling intervention package to improve students' on‐task behavior in the classroom are presented. The classwide intervention took place in three mixed‐grade classrooms (third/fourth, fourth/fifth, and fifth/sixth) with 14–20 students each. Fifteen‐minute intervention sessions occurred approximately two times a week for a total of six to eight sessions. During each intervention session, students watched a 4‐minute videotape segment depicting a peer model demonstrating near 100% on‐task behavior, which was accompanied by verbal coaching and small tangible rewards. Results demonstrated large treatment effects across all three classrooms, which remained large in two of the classrooms at follow‐up 4–8 weeks later. Corresponding positive social validity by participating students and teachers was also documented. Results are discussed in terms of implications, limitations, and future research directions. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

An examination of group‐based treatment packages for increasing elementary‐aged students' reading fluency

Reading fluency has been described as one of the essential ingredients for ensuring that students become successful readers. Unfortunately, a large number of elementary‐aged students in this country do not fluently read age‐appropriate material. Because of this, small‐group interventions are practical and more time efficient than individualized intervention programs, but very few small‐group interventions have been developed to target students' reading fluency of connected text. The primary purpose of this study was to examine four group‐based treatment packages containing two or more of the following reading interventions: repeated reading, listening passage preview, and practicing difficult words in isolation. Effects of each treatment package were evaluated with 4 third graders using an alternating‐treatments design, and effects were evaluated for both immediate and retained reading‐fluency gains. Findings indicated that the combination of all three intervention components was most effective. Results also suggested some inconsistent relationships between immediate and retained reading gains for 3 of the 4 students. Implications of these findings, limitations of the study, and directions for future research are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 183–195, 2006.     

Examining the relationship between treatment outcomes for academic achievement and social skills in school‐age children with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between treatment‐induced changes in academic achievement and social skills in elementary school‐age children with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder. A sample of 123 children in grades 1 through 4 with symptoms of inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity, and significant achievement problems in math or reading were identified for participation. Participants were exposed to academic interventions mediated by their teachers, parents, peers, computers, or the student themselves. Data were collected on academic competence using the Woodcock‐Johnson III Test of Achievement and the Academic Competence Evaluation Scales; social skills were assessed using the Social Skills Rating System. Correlations between changes in academic competence and social skills from preintervention to approximately 10 months later were calculated. Results showed that as teacher ratings of reading improved, there were corresponding improvements in social skills. For students in peer‐mediated math interventions, increases in math fluency were correlated with improvements in self‐control. Results are discussed in the context of possible reasons for these findings and implications for practice and future research. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Relationship between pre‐intervention data and post‐intervention reading fluency and growth: A meta‐analysis of assessment data for individual students

Curriculum‐based measurement is commonly used within a response‐to‐intervention framework to assess the effectiveness of intervention and to triage students into intervention tiers (e.g., the lowest 10% receive a Tier 3 intervention, and those in the 11th to 25th percentiles receive a Tier 2 intervention). We conducted a meta‐analysis of 18 studies to examine the relationship between pre‐intervention assessments and post‐intervention level and growth in reading fluency. The results indicated that several pre‐intervention measures were moderately related to post‐intervention fluency, but only a percentage of comprehension questions answered during baseline assessments, reading fluency age or grade‐based standard scores (SS), and word attack SS resulted in even a small to moderate relationship with reading growth. Moreover, there was no significant difference between the correlation of any two pre‐intervention measures with reading growth, which suggested that all of the measures were equally poorly related to reading growth. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Dyslexia and the Phono‐Graphix reading programme

The study reported here set out to investigate the effectiveness of the Phono‐Graphix? reading programme with ten learners, aged 9–11 years, assessed as having specific learning difficulties/dyslexia. Testing was carried out via initial and final analysis of the students' phonological processing skills and reading/spelling ability over an 8‐month intervention period. The students were instructed on a one‐to‐one basis and each received an average of 24.3 hours of instruction. Findings suggest that the Phono‐Graphix programme did appear to help improve students' phonological processing skills. They further show that a majority of the students recorded an average gain in reading age of 21 months and an average gain in spelling age of 12 months at the end of the training period. Qualitative findings from the study also show overall positive perceptions of the Phono‐Graphix intervention among the parents and class teachers involved. The study reported here adds to the sum of knowledge on UK trials of the Phono‐Graphix approach and makes a useful contribution to the literature on remediation strategies for dyslexic students.     

Effects of single‐case reading interventions for students with and at‐risk of emotional and behavioral disorders in grades K–12: A quantitative synthesis

This study examined the effects of reading interventions from single‐case design studies for students with and at‐risk of emotional and behavioral disorders in grades K–12 using a quantitative synthesis. Seventeen studies met the selection criteria of having one more dependent variables meeting what works clearinghouse (WWC) design standards with or without reservations. Although students’ reading performance significantly improved from baseline to intervention phases (p < 0.001), the overall weighted average effect size was weak (Tau‐U = 0.58, 95% confidence interval = [0.54, 0.63]; d = 0.29); smaller effects were found on reading comprehension. Interventions were less effective for students in secondary grades, students with a comorbid disability, and students in substantially separate settings. While no studies meeting the selection criteria were conducted in inclusive settings, the teacher provided interventions were more effective than those provided by researchers suggesting the importance of the student–teacher relationship for reading instruction. Study limitations, areas for future research, and implications for school practices are discussed.     

Implementing Research‐Based Instruction to Prevent Reading Problems Among Low‐Income Students: Is Earlier Better?

It is currently considered imperative to introduce reading instruction as early as possible. This proposition was tested by assigning groups of kindergarteners (N = 256) to two conditions differing in their emphasis on prevention. In the first, teacher‐implemented research‐based interventions were implemented during kindergarten and first grade. In the second, only the first‐grade intervention was implemented. Analyses were conducted separately for students not at risk, at low risk, and at high risk of reading problems. In the short term, the kindergarten intervention was highly effective for both low‐risk and high‐risk students, but it is only for the latter group that early gains translated into better reading skills at the end of first grade. Not‐at‐risk students did not benefit from the early introduction of reading instruction.     

Parent involvement and reading: Using curriculum‐based measurement to assess the effects of paired reading

This study examined the effectiveness of a paired reading intervention using curriculum‐based measurement (CBM) probes to document reading progress for one fourth‐ and two third‐grade students. These students were considered below‐average readers. Parents and children used the paired reading method in their homes for 10 minutes, four times a week. Children and parents were also provided with reading material at their instructional level. Results showed that the children's reading accuracy and rates increased from baseline to follow‐up on CBM measures and on pre/posttesting. In addition, students and parents gave favorable treatment acceptability ratings for paired reading. Implications for future research are outlined. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 40: 613–626, 2003.     

Building Tier 3 Intervention for Long‐Term Slow Growers in Grades 3–4: A Pilot Study

Tier 3 interventions are necessary for improving the reading performance of students who fail to respond adequately to Tier 1 general education instruction and Tier 2 supplemental reading intervention. In this pilot study, we identified 8 students in 3rd and 4th grade who had demonstrated slow response to Tier 2 reading interventions for three years. Students participated in a researcher‐developed Tier 3 intervention for 8 weeks that focused on skill development in word analysis, word identification, and reading rate. In the 6 months prior to Tier 3, students were making minimal growth in reading; however, during Tier 3, the 8 students demonstrated strong growth on measures of word identification and reading rate. Although results are promising for poor readers who are difficult to remediate, several aspects of the Tier 3 intervention need further testing.     

Reciprocal effects between intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence? A cross‐lagged panel model for academic track and nonacademic track students

Previous research has demonstrated positive relations between intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence. However, the causal direction of these relations and the moderating role of relevant background variables (e.g., students' achievement level) are not well understood. In the present study, a cross‐lagged panel model was applied to academic track and nonacademic track fifth grade students (N = 396) to test whether intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence are reciprocally related depending on the students' achievement level (indicated by school track affiliation). According to expectations, the cross‐lagged effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading competence was only significant for academic track students. In the nonacademic track group, neither the effect of intrinsic reading motivation on reading competence nor the reverse effect proved to be significant. Thus, the nature of the relation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading competence seems to depend on students' school track affiliation.     

A pilot evaluation of the reading intervention ‘Own‐voice Intensive Phonics’

This paper describes the mixed methodology evaluation of the Own‐Voice Intensive Phonics (OVIP) programme with 33 secondary students with persistent literacy difficulties. The evaluation involved a quasi‐experimental evaluation in which 33 students in years 7–9 in four schools used OVIP over an 8 week period and were monitored at three times for their word reading, phonic decoding and phonological skills. Students, teaching assistants and teachers involved were also interviewed about the use of OVIP, the perceived processes and outcomes. Assessment results showed that OVIP was associated with greater gains in word reading than these students' usual teaching/intervention approaches. Those interviewed also experienced benefits associated with using OVIP. It was further found that word reading gains were not related to a measure of being at risk of significant literacy difficulties. Participants identified the use of their own voice, the student's agency and working at their own pace as key factors relevant to how OVIP worked. These factors aligned with a working OVIP programme theory. The findings are discussed in terms of further development and research related to an own voice approach to addressing persistent literacy difficulties.     

The Effects of Peer‐Assisted Literacy Strategies for First‐Grade Readers With and Without Additional Mini‐Skills Lessons

In this research, we sought to replicate findings of our previous research examining the efficacy of 1st‐Grade Peer‐Assisted Literacy Strategies (1st‐Grade PALS) with children of different achievement levels in naturally constituted general education classrooms. We also examined the impact of adding skills‐focused mini‐lessons conducted along with 1st‐Grade PALS with the 3 lowest‐achieving readers in some of these classrooms. First‐Grade PALS sessions were conducted for 30‐minutes session 3 times a week for 14 weeks. Mini‐lessons were also conducted 3 times per week for 15 to 20 minute sessions during the final 6 weeks of 1st‐Grade PALS implementation. During 1st‐Grade PALS, all students within a class were paired with other students from within the same class (1) to practice phonological awareness, phonological recoding, and reading of connected text built on previously mastered phonological elements, and (2) to make predictions about a book prior to reading it, share the experience of reading a story with a peer, have repeated exposure to text, and summarize the story through verbal retelling. The skills‐focused mini‐lessons mirrored the content of 1st‐Grade PALS and were designed to provide additional instruction and integrated practice of the orthophonemic elements of English text. Results indicate that 1st‐Grade PALS, on average, enhanced reading performance of students both in terms of statistical significance and in terms of educational relevance, although not equally for all learner types, closely replicating findings from our previous studies. Results also suggest that there was some benefit to students who participated in the small‐group mini‐lessons. However, conclusions about the true impact of the mini‐lessons are limited because teachers resisted implementing these lessons.     

Improving Reading Skills in Predominantly Hispanic Title 1 First‐Grade Classrooms: The Promise of Peer‐Assisted Learning Strategies

The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of a supplemental peer‐tutoring reading program on phonological and reading fluency skills of first graders (N= 78) who were in predominantly Hispanic Title 1 classrooms. Sixty‐eight percent of the students were Hispanic, all were English speaking. Six classrooms were randomly assigned to either the peer‐assisted learning strategies (PALS) program or a control condition. PALS students participated in a peer‐mediated early literacy intervention three times a week for 20 weeks for a total of 30 hours. Reading fluency measures taken at fall, winter, and spring showed statistically significant differences favoring PALS on phoneme segmentation and nonsense word fluency. Additionally, results analyzed by ethnic subgroups (Hispanic and non‐Hispanic) revealed a differential pattern of response to PALS intervention. Social validity questionnaires reported that teachers and students viewed PALS in a positive light.     

FORMATIVE,INFORMATIVE, AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG CURRICULUM‐BASED MEASUREMENT OF READING,CLASSROOM ENGAGEMENT,AND READING PERFORMANCE

This study explored the relationships among formative curriculum‐based measures of reading (CBM‐R), student engagement as an extra‐academic indicator of student motivation, and summative performance on a high‐stakes reading assessment. A diverse sample of third‐, fourth‐, and fifth‐grade students and their teachers responded to questionnaires about student engagement in academic tasks. These questionnaires were collected about the same time as fall CBM‐R oral reading fluency and maze screening tasks. Results indicated that fall student and teacher reports of engagement and a composite score of reading competence derived from CBM‐R screening tests uniquely predicted student performance on year‐end standardized reading tests. Profile analyses indicated that student engagement was associated with better reading performance among students with low competence, suggesting that engagement may be particularly important for increasing student performance for struggling readers. Implications for interventions targeting both student motivation, as well as reading skill development, are discussed.     

Early Comprehension Instruction for Spanish‐Speaking English Language Learners: Teaching Text‐Level Reading Skills While Maintaining Effects on Word‐Level Skills

This study investigated the effects of three instructional conditions on precursors to successful reading for Spanish‐speaking English language learners (ELL). The study was conducted using a randomized, alternate treatment control group design specifically targeting phonological awareness (PA) listening comprehension (LC), and decoding in a sample of ELL (N= 82) including students who were and were not at risk for later reading failure. Two randomly assigned experimental intervention groups and one treatment control group were created to test the effectiveness of three instructional interventions that differed in the relative amount of time used for instructing the word‐ and text‐level targeted skills. Specifically, the two experimental intervention groups received different doses of LC relative to PA instruction, creating a LC Concentration group and a PA Concentration group. The treatment control group received only PA and alphabet knowledge instruction (word‐level skills). Results indicated that both at‐risk and not‐at‐risk ELLs in the LC Concentration group outperformed students in the other groups on almost all measures, including PA skills, despite minimal amounts of instructional time‐targeting word‐level skills. These data extend the existing literature by lending empirical support to the use of a LC component in early reading interventions for young ELL.     

An investigation of listening and listening‐while‐reading accommodations on reading comprehension levels and rates in students with emotional disorders

Researchers used alternating treatment designs to investigate the effects of listening‐while‐reading (LWR) and listening interventions on comprehension levels and rates in four middle school students with emotional disorders. During LWR, students were instructed to read passages silently along with experimenters. During the listening condition, we did not give students a printed copy of the passage but merely instructed them to listen as an experimenter read the passages aloud. The control condition consisted of students reading passages silently. After each condition, students answered 10 comprehension questions without referring back to the printed passage. Although neither intervention resulted in comprehension levels consistently superior to those of the silent reading control condition, LWR and listening resulted in higher rates of comprehension than the silent reading control condition across all four students. However, listening appeared to improve reading comprehension rates in only two students. These results suggest that LWR may be an efficient procedure for enhancing comprehension across content areas with groups of students who have heterogeneous reading skills. The discussion focuses on future applied research with students with disabilities. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 39–51, 2005.     

Learning when school is not in session: a reading summer day‐camp intervention to improve the achievement of exiting First‐Grade students who are economically disadvantaged

During the summer vacation children who are economically disadvantaged experience declines in reading achievement, while middle‐ and high‐income children improve. Previous research has demonstrated that the most widely implemented intervention – sending economically disadvantaged students to summer school – has not led to increases in reading achievement. In this longitudinal randomised trial, a randomly assigned group of exiting First‐Grade children who were economically disadvantaged was enrolled in a seven‐week summer reading day camp. The intervention students' reading achievement was then compared to control group participants at four time points. Results showed noteworthy differences for intervention students in reading comprehension.