Expert-Novice Differences in Cognitive and Skill Execution Components of Youth Baseball Performance

Abstract

Previous research has shown that experts exhibit superior response selection and skill execution during performance in youth sport. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in cognitive and skill execution components of game performance in young baseball players (N = 159) with, varying levels of expertise. Three levels of expertise (low-, average-, and high-skilled players) were identified at each age level (7, 8, 9, and 10 years of age). Game performance was videotaped, and measures of skill execution (throwing accuracy, throwing force, fielding, catching, batting average, and batting contact) and cognitive components (positioning, decisions) were developed from observational analysis. The results indicated that baseball skill execution during game play maximally discriminated expertise levels.     

Charting the development of sport expertise: challenges and opportunities

This review poses three key issues that will progress our understanding of the sport expertise literature and its translational scientific impact. Primarily relying on research conducted in interceptive sport tasks, and to a lesser extent team sports, we review the perceptual-cognitive skills of sports experts and explore the challenge of designing a sufficiently representative task to examine expertise. We focus on the methodological challenges presented by the reciprocal relationship between players’ action capabilities and their perceptual-cognitive skill. Second, we consider the need for a paradigm shift in the experimental approach used when examining the development of sport expertise. In short, a shift from traditional expert-novice designs to more prospective longitudinal designs that cross-sectionally track the development of expertise is discussed. The final issue considers how the volume of in situ data now collected provides a rich source of information that sport expertise researchers have only begun to consider and integrate with more traditional sport psychology research. We demonstrate how statistical approaches that have described the likely trajectories of expert performers on their journey toward expertise coupled with more traditional qualitative experimental approaches can provide useful insights into the development of psychological performance skills and more broadly sport expertise.     

Expertise and expert performance in sport

We review contemporary research focusing on expertise and expert performance in sport. The deliberate practice theoretical framework is presented, and the level of investment in purposeful practice needed to reach the elite level in sport is illustrated. We highlight some of the adaptations that occur as a result of extended engagement in practice and training, with particular reference to perceptual-cognitive skills, such as anticipation and decision-making. These psychological adaptations are explained through reference to long-term working memory theory. Finally, the expert performance approach is presented as a guiding framework for studying expertise in sport, and some suggestions for future research are proposed. The study of expertise and expert performance in sport offers a unique source of data that help promote understanding of the factors that constrain human achievement and the extent to which these may be overcome by systematic engagement in practice and training.     

Perceptual-cognitive expertise of handball coaches in their young and middle adult years

There is little research investigating the maintenance of perceptual-cognitive expertise in general and even less comparing coaches of different ages. The aim of this study was to test for perceptual-cognitive differences between age groups, licence levels, and their interaction. This study investigated differences in skilled performance between young and middle-aged coaches of three different skill levels. Participants performed an accuracy-oriented pattern recall (mean distance in pixel) and a time-oriented flicker test (mean detection time in ms). There were some significant differences between age groups and between skill groups for both tests, but no interactions. For the pattern recall test, the effect sizes were larger for skill level differences, while for the flicker test effects were larger for ageing. These results suggest coaches are able to maintain accuracy skills better than reaction timed tasks. This is in line with findings on speeded performance in general populations, which show declines with age. Moreover, results also support findings on perceptual expertise in skills where accuracy was important.     

Perception-action coupling in complex game play: Exploring the quiet eye in contested basketball jump shots

The duration of the final fixation before movement initiation – a gaze strategy labelled quiet eye – has been found to explain differences in motor expertise and performance in precision tasks. To date, research only addressed this phenomenon in situations without adversarial constraints. In the present study, we compared the quiet-eye behaviour of intermediately-skilled and highly-skilled basketball players in defended vs. undefended game situations. We predicted differences in quiet-eye duration as a function of skill and performance particularly resulting from late quiet-eye offsets. Results indicated performance-enhancing effects of long quiet-eye durations in the defended but not in the undefended game situation. Furthermore, in line with our prediction, later quiet-eye offsets were associated with superior performance elucidating the phenomenon’s relevance in online-demanding motor tasks. Further, earlier quiet-eye onsets were linked to successful performance supporting earlier suggestions that it is not only the duration but also the timing that matters. These findings not only extend the positive effects of the quiet eye in motor performance to dynamic game-play situations but also support the role of the quiet eye in response to programming and information processing respectively.     

Visual search, anticipation and expertise in soccer goalkeepers

We used a novel methodological approach to examine skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search behaviour during the penalty kick in soccer. Expert and novice goalkeepers were required to move a joystick in response to penalty kicks presented on film. The proportion of penalties saved was assessed, as well as the frequency and time of initiation of joystick corrections. Visual search behaviour was examined using an eye movement registration system. Expert goalkeepers were generally more accurate in predicting the direction of the penalty kick, waited longer before initiating a response and made fewer corrective movements with the joystick. The expert goalkeepers used a more efficient search strategy involving fewer fixations of longer duration to less disparate areas of the display. The novices spent longer fixating on the trunk, arms and hips, whereas the experts found the kicking leg, non-kicking leg and ball areas to be more informative, particularly as the moment of foot-ball contact approached. No differences in visual search behaviour were observed between successful and unsuccessful penalties. The results have implications for improving anticipation skill at penalty kicks.     

Visual search,anticipation and expertise in soccer goalkeepers

We used a novel methodological approach to examine skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search behaviour during the penalty kick in soccer. Expert and novice goalkeepers were required to move a joystick in response to penalty kicks presented on film. The proportion of penalties saved was assessed, as well as the frequency and time of initiation of joystick corrections. Visual search behaviour was examined using an eye movement registration system. Expert goalkeepers were generally more accurate in predicting the direction of the penalty kick, waited longer before initiating a response and made fewer corrective movements with the joystick. The expert goalkeepers used a more efficient search strategy involving fewer fixations of longer duration to less disparate areas of the display. The novices spent longer fixating on the trunk, arms and hips, whereas the experts found the kicking leg, non-kicking leg and ball areas to be more informative, particularly as the moment of foot-ball contact approached. No differences in visual search behaviour were observed between successful and unsuccessful penalties. The results have implications for improving anticipation skill at penalty kicks.     

Especial skill vs. quiet eye duration in basketball free throw: Evidence for the inhibition of competing task solutions

Abstract

The quiet eye (QE) is a gaze phenomenon that has been studied over more than two decades. However, the underlying mechanisms of the well-known expertise effect, namely, longer QE durations in experts when compared to less-skilled athletes remain unclear. Therefore, from a functional perspective, an inhibition hypothesis was proposed that explains long QE durations in experts with increased inhibition requirements over movement parametrisation. This hypothesis was tested by making use of the especial-skill effect in basketball free throw which refers to the observation of higher actual performance than would be predicted on the basis of performance at the nearby locations. In line with the expectations, from the distance of the free-throw line, higher actual than predicted shooting accuracy and longer actual than predicted QE duration were revealed. This suggests that when performing free throws prolonged QE durations are required to shield the optimal against alternative task solutions within the very dense sub-space of this especial skill. These findings suggest an inhibition function of long QE durations in expert athletes.     

Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions

This review is designed to summarize and critique current life skills through sport research. In particular, life skills are defined, the conditions needed to examine life skills development are explored, and the possible theoretical explanations of how, when, under what conditions and why life skills develop in sport participants are discussed. A heuristic model of coaching life skills is offered. To conclude, future research directions are forwarded and include the need for: (a) quantitative and qualitative research; (b) the development of valid life skills through sport measures; (c) an examination of sport program type differences; (d) evaluation research; (e) longitudinal studies; (f) studies focusing on identifying theoretical explanations for the life skill development sport participation link; (g) the utilization of experimental designs; and (h) an examination of the transferability of life skills. The importance of conducting this type of research for both theoretical and practical reasons is emphasized.     

排球运动员接发球过程中视觉搜索特征的研究

以33名不同水平排球运动员为被试,将时间阻断范式、眼动记录技术相结合,探讨排球运动员接发球过程中的视觉搜索特征。结果表明:在接发球过程中,不同水平排球运动员的视觉搜索特征存在显著差异。优秀排球运动员可以根据运动情景中任务的变化迅速调整视觉搜索模式,在接发球的预期阶段采用了注视次数少、注视持续时间长、眼跳距离小、注视轨迹简单、集中的搜索模式;在动作操作阶段采用了注视次数多、注视持续时间短、眼跳距离大、注视轨迹分散成网状的搜索模式。优秀排球运动员对发球落点进行预判时,在反应时和准确性指标上存在明显的优势,但是,随着运动水平的提高,反应准确性不是优秀排球运动员预期能力的主要区分标准。提示:对于测试、评价运动员在运动情景中的信息加工处理能力不能根据单一运动情景的眼动特征进行,要综合运动情景中的不同任务的眼动指标和行为预判探讨运动员在运动过程中的视觉搜索特征。     

Perceptual-cognitive skill training and its transfer to expert performance in the field: Future research directions

Abstract

Perceptual-cognitive skills training provides a potentially valuable method for training athletes on key skills, such as anticipation and decision-making. It can be used when athletes are unable to physically train or are unable to experience repeated key situations from their sport. In this article, we review research on perceptual-cognitive skills training and describe future research areas focusing on a number of key theories and principles. The main aim of any training intervention should be the efficacy of retention and transfer of learning from training to field situations, which should be the key consideration when designing the representative tasks used in perceptual-cognitive skills training. We review the principles that seek to create practice tasks that replicate those found in the field, so as to increase the amount of transfer that occurs. These principles are perception–action coupling, the contextual interference effect and contextual information, which suggest there should be a high level of similarity between training and real-life performance when designing perceptual-cognitive skills training. In the final section, we discuss the transfer of retained skill acquisition from perceptual-cognitive skills training to field performance, which we suggest to be the key area for future research in this area.     

Pre-movement and during-movement visual search behaviours vary depending on expertise and anxiety levels in ten-pin bowling

This study investigated the pre-movement and during-movement visual search behaviour (VSB) and quiet eye (QE) of 11 elite versus 10 sub-elite ten-pin bowlers, performing under high-anxiety and low-anxiety conditions. Pre-movement and independent of expertise, bowlers had more fixations and directed them to more locations when performing under high-anxiety compared with low-anxiety. Elite bowlers fixated at more locations closer to the pins in pre-movement than during-movement, with pre-movement QE occurring mostly at the breakpoint and middle arrows. During movement however, bowlers fixated closer to the foul-line at the middle and right dots and arrows, with during-movement-QE occurring at the middle dots and right arrows. Elite bowlers recorded longer QE durations during-movement rather than pre-movement, albeit a later onset during the longish five-step approach prior to ball release compared with sub-elite bowlers. Our results suggest that QE during-movement instead of pre-movement could be more pertinent in differentiating expertise during sporting tasks with a long movement phase and far-aiming target. The relevance of pre-movement or movement-QE in characterising expertise and performance could therefore be sport-dependent. This should be considered when investigating skilled action and developing training programs for skill acquisition.     

Perceptual-cognitive skills in offside decision making: expertise and training effects

This two-experiment study aims to investigate the role of expertise in offside decision making (Experiment 1) and the effect of perceptual-cognitive training (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, a video-based offside decision-making task followed by a frame recognition task demonstrated a bias toward flag errors and a forward memory shift for less-successful elite-standard assistant referees that is in line with the predictions from the flash-lag effect. In Experiment 2, an offside decision-making training program demonstrated a substantial progress from pre- to posttest for response accuracy, but not for accuracy of memory in the frame recognition task. In both experiments, no differences were found for visual scan patterns. First, these results suggest that less-successful elite-standard assistant referees are more affected by the flash-lag effect. Second, an off-field perceptual-cognitive training program can help assistant referees to deal with the perceptual consequences of the flash-lag illusion and to readjust their decision-making process accordingly.     

The impact of physiological load on anticipation skills in badminton: From testing to training

Research remains unclear on the impact of physiological load on perceptual-cognitive skills in sport. Moreover, no study has examined the training of perceptual-cognitive skills under physiological load. The current study comprised two phases. Firstly, we examined the impact of badminton-specific physiological load on anticipatory skills in expert badminton players (n = 13), including key underlying mechanisms, such as gaze behaviour. Under high physiological load, participants displayed less efficient visual search behaviour and showed a reduction in response accuracy. Secondly, we examined the effects of combining perceptual-cognitive simulation training with the high physiological load. Ten of the expert badminton players were assigned to a combined training group, where the simulation training and the physiological load intervention occurred simultaneously or an independent training group, whereby the two components were completed independently. The combined training group showed a positive change in the efficiency of their visual search behaviours compared to the independent training group, but no significant performance improvements were found. Overall, findings demonstrate that high physiological load is detrimental to experts’ anticipatory skills. However, combining perceptual-cognitive simulation training with high physiological load can potentially negate these debilitating effects.     

Relationships between Psychological Functions Tests and Selected Sport Skills of Boys in Junior High School

Abstract

Junior high school boys (N=181) took part in this study. There were 91 athletes and 90 nonathletes who took five psychological function tests² and eight sport skill tests to determine (a) whether differences existed in selected psychological functions and selected sport skills between junior high school boy athletes and nonathletes, (b) the degree of relationship between psychological functions and sport skills, (c) the implementation of a six-multiple variation equation in predicting probable individual sport skill scores, and (d) the degree of relationship between a long and short form psychological functions test and a long and short form sport skills test.

The Stoelting visual reaction timer apparatus was used to test for simple reaction time. The Howard-Dolman apparatus was used to test for depth perception. The McClure perimeter was used to test for peripheral vision left eye, right eye, and total angle. The sport skill tests used were soccer combination skills and volley; basketball dribble shoot and volley; volleyball volley and serve; and baseball volley and repeat throws.

Significant differences existed on all psychological function tests and sport skill tests between athletes and nonathletes, in favor of athletes. The psychological function tests were independent of each other except for peripheral vision total angle with right eye and left eye. There was a low to moderate relationship between the psychological functions and the sport skills. The six-variable multiple R regression equation had a 70 percent predictive accuracy on individual scores for each sport skill test. The short form psychological functions test and the short form sport skills test could replace their respective long forms. The short form psychological functions test could moderately predict sport skill performance in the sport skill areas selected.     

The effects of anxiety and strategic planning on visual search behaviour

The past decade has witnessed increased interest in the visual search behaviour of athletes. Little is known, however, about the relationship between anxiety and eye movements in sport performers or about the extent to which athletes' planned and actual visual search strategies correspond. To address these issues, we conducted two studies. In Study 1, eight expert female gymnasts were presented with three digital slides of a model performing a skill that is known to be anxiety-provoking in this sport - namely, the 'back flip' on the beam. By varying the height of the beam and the presence or absence of safety mats, the slides differed in the amount of anxiety that they elicited vicariously in the viewer. In the study, the gymnasts were asked to imagine themselves in the position of the depicted model and to describe the anxiety that they felt. As they viewed the slides, their eye movements were recorded. As predicted, anxiety was associated with an increase in the number of fixations to peripheral areas. In addition, the more 'threatening' slides elicited significantly more fixations than the less feared images. In Study 2, the plans of 15 equestrian performers (5 expert, 5 intermediate and 5 novice) were elicited as they engaged in a virtual 'walk' around a computerized show-jumping course. Contrary to expectations, the congruence between intended and actual search behaviour was not significantly greater for expert riders than for the less skilled groups. Also, the fact that the top riders allocated more fixations to slides than the less skilled performers challenged the prediction that expertise would be associated with economy of visual search. Finally, as expected, the expert riders were significantly less dependent on the overall 'course plan' than the intermediate and novice equestrian performers when inspecting the fences.     

Perceptual-cognitive expertise when refereeing the scrum in rugby union

Compared to sports performers, relatively little is known about how sports officials make decisions at a perceptual-cognitive level. Thus, this study examined the decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour of rugby union referees of varying skill levels while reviewing scrum scenarios. Elite (n = 9) and trainee (n = 9) referees, as well as experienced players (n = 9), made decisions while watching ten projected scrum clips and wearing a mobile eye-tracker. Decision-making accuracy and gaze behaviour were recorded for each scrum. The elite and trainee referees made more accurate decisions than the players, and differences in gaze behavior were observed. The elite and trainee referees displayed lower search rates, spent more time fixating central-pack (i.e., front rows, binds, and contact point) and less time fixating outer-pack (e.g., second rows) and non-pack (e.g., other) locations, and exhibited lower entropy than the players. While search rate failed to predict decision-making accuracy, the time spent fixating central-, outer-, and non-pack locations, as well as entropy, were significant predictors. The findings have implications for training perceptual-cognitive skill among sports officials.     

State anxiety and visual attention: the role of the quiet eye period in aiming to a far target

In this study, we examined how individuals controlled their gaze behaviour during execution of a far aiming task and whether the functional relationship between perception and action was disrupted by increased anxiety. Twenty participants were trained on a simulated archery task, using a joystick to aim and shoot arrows at the target, and then competed in two counterbalanced experimental conditions designed to manipulate the anxiety they experienced. The specific gaze behaviour measured was the duration of the quiet eye period. As predicted, accuracy was affected by the duration of the quiet eye period, with longer quiet eye periods being associated with better performance. The manipulation of anxiety resulted in reductions in the duration of quiet eye. Our results show that the quiet eye period is sensitive to increases in anxiety and may be a useful index of the efficiency of visual orientation in aiming tasks.     

Head, eye and arm coordination in table tennis

The aim of this study was to determine the role of head, eye and arm movements during the execution of a table tennis forehand stroke. Three-dimensional kinematic analysis of line-of-gaze, arm and ball was used to describe visual and motor behaviour. Skilled and less skilled participants returned the ball to cued right or left target areas under three levels of temporal constraint: pre-, early- and late-cue conditions. In the pre- and early-cue conditions, both high and low skill participants tracked the ball early in flight and kept gaze stable on a location in advance of the ball before ball-bat contact. Skilled participants demonstrated an earlier onset of ball tracking and recorded higher performance accuracy than less skilled counterparts. The manipulation of cue condition showed the limits of adaptation to maintain accuracy on the target. Participants were able to accommodate the constraints imposed by the early-cue condition by using a shorter quiet eye duration, earlier quiet eye offset and reduced arm velocity at contact. In the late-cue condition, modifications to gaze, head and arm movements were not sufficient to preserve accuracy. The findings highlight the functional coupling between perception and action during time-constrained, goal-directed actions.     

State anxiety and visual attention: The role of the quiet eye period in aiming to a far target

Abstract

In this study, we examined how individuals controlled their gaze behaviour during execution of a far aiming task and whether the functional relationship between perception and action was disrupted by increased anxiety. Twenty participants were trained on a simulated archery task, using a joystick to aim and shoot arrows at the target, and then competed in two counterbalanced experimental conditions designed to manipulate the anxiety they experienced. The specific gaze behaviour measured was the duration of the quiet eye period. As predicted, accuracy was affected by the duration of the quiet eye period, with longer quiet eye periods being associated with better performance. The manipulation of anxiety resulted in reductions in the duration of quiet eye. Our results show that the quiet eye period is sensitive to increases in anxiety and may be a useful index of the efficiency of visual orientation in aiming tasks.