Learners Emphasize Their Intrinsic Load if Asked About It First: Communicative Aspects of Cognitive Load Measurement

Cognitive load measurement is an important aspect of educational research. Current cognitive load surveys differentiate between intrinsic cognitive load (resulting from the complexity of learning materials) and their extraneous cognitive load (which is increased by a demanding design). In two studies, order effects of cognitive load subscales are demonstrated. Asking learners regarding their intrinsic load first increases their responses concerning this type of load, with little effect on extraneous load ratings. This effect can be replicated even when extraneous load is intentionally induced. This finding has important implications for cognitive load research, as the order of surveys appears to bias cognitive load ratings. As most cognitive load research is conducted to find ways of reducing extraneous load, it may be reasonable to carefully consider whether and when intrinsic load items are included in studies. Generally, the results show that study participants seem to emphasize certain demands, similar to a dialogue.     

Differentiating Different Types of Cognitive Load: a Comparison of Different Measures

Recent studies about learning and instruction use cognitive load measurement to pay attention to the human cognitive resources and to the consumption of these resources during the learning process. In order to validate different measures of cognitive load for different cognitive load factors, the present study compares three different methods of objective cognitive load measurement and one subjective method. An experimental three-group design (N = 78) was used, with exposure to seductive details (extraneous cognitive load factor), mental animation tasks (germane cognitive load factor), or the basic learning instruction (control group). Cognitive load was measured by the rhythm method (Park and Brünken 2015), the index of cognitive activity (ICA) (Marshall 2007), and the subjective ratings of mental effort and task difficulty (Paas 1992). Eye-tracking data were used to analyze the attention allocation and as an indicator for cognitive activity. The results show a significantly higher cognitive load for the mental animation group in contrast to the control and the seductive detail group, indicated by rhythm method and subjective ratings, as well as a higher cognitive activity, indicated by eye tracking. Furthermore, the mental animation group shows significantly higher comprehension performance in contrast to the seductive detail group and significantly higher transfer performance in contrast to the control group. The ICA values showed no significant differences in cognitive load. The results provide evidence for the benefits of combining eye-tracking analysis and the results of cognitive load ratings or secondary task performance for a direct and continuous cognitive load assessment and for a differentiating access to the single cognitive load factors.     

Facilitating Flexible Problem Solving: A Cognitive Load Perspective

The development of flexible, transferable problem-solving skills is an important aim of contemporary educational systems. Since processing limitations of our mind represent a major factor influencing any meaningful learning, the acquisition of flexible problem-solving skills needs to be based on known characteristics of our cognitive architecture in order to be effective and efficient. This paper takes a closer look at the processes involved in the acquisition of flexible problem-solving skills within a cognitive load framework. It concludes that (1) cognitive load theory can benefit from putting more emphasis on generalized knowledge structures; (2) there are tradeoffs between generality and power with respect to specific versus generalized knowledge structures; (3) generalized knowledge structures of “medium” generality are essential for flexible expertise; and (4) cognitive load theory could provide a valuable framework for considering essential attributes of flexible expertise.     

谈思维导图解决大学英语课堂的认知负荷问题

根据认知负荷理论,学习受认知负荷与工作记忆的影响。当今信息时代,大学英语课堂的认知负荷往往超过学生的工作记忆能力,教学达不到预期的效果。针对这一问题,研究了运用思维导图解决英语教学过程中的认知负荷问题,给出一种基于建构主义教学模式设计思维导图的案例,并对英语教学中思维导图的设计要领进行了分析和探讨。分析和实践表明,在英语课堂教学中运用思维导图对于激发学生的发散性思维,促进知识建构,提高教学效果具有重要意义。     

Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load

Although the theoretical framework of cognitive load theory has acknowledged a role for the learning environment, the specific characteristics of the physical learning environment that could affect cognitive load have never been considered, neither theoretically nor empirically. In this article, we argue that the physical learning environment, and more specifically its effects on cognitive load, can be regarded as a determinant of the effectiveness of instruction. We present an updated version of the cognitive load model of Paas and Van Merriënboer (Educational Psychology Review, 6:351–371, 1994a), in which the physical learning environment is considered a distinct causal factor that can interact with learner characteristics, learning-task characteristics, or a combination of both. Previous research into effects of the physical learning environment on cognitive performance that could inspire new cognitive load research is discussed, and a future research agenda is sketched.     

基于认知负荷理论的“大学物理”教学

约翰·斯威勒提出的认知负荷理论,主张合理分配认知资源,对有效学习至关重要。如果教师在设计教学时能按照认知负荷理论,尽量减少学习任务中不必要的认知负荷,有助于提高教学的效果。因此,提出基于认知负荷理论的大学物理教学,可以通过物理知识的图表化、优化多媒体教学、融入物理学史等手段,管理内在认知负荷,降低外在认知负荷,增加相关认知负荷,以此减少学生的学习障碍,激发学生的学习兴趣,从而最终达到促进有效学习的目的。     

Using Electroencephalography to Measure Cognitive Load

Application of physiological methods, in particular electroencephalography (EEG), offers new and promising approaches to educational psychology research. EEG is identified as a physiological index that can serve as an online, continuous measure of cognitive load detecting subtle fluctuations in instantaneous load, which can help explain effects of instructional interventions when measures of overall cognitive load fail to reflect such differences in cognitive processing. This paper presents a review of seminal literature on the use of continuous EEG to measure cognitive load and describes two case studies on learning from hypertext and multimedia that employed EEG methodology to collect and analyze cognitive load data.     

Cognitive Load Theory: Advances in Research on Worked Examples, Animations, and Cognitive Load Measurement

The contributions to this special issue document some recent advances of cognitive load theory, and are based on contributions to the Third International Cognitive Load Theory Conference (2009), Heerlen, The Netherlands. The contributions focus on developments in example-based learning, amongst others on the effects of integrating worked examples in cognitive tutoring systems; specify the effects of transience on cognitive load and why segmentation may help counteract these effects in terms of the role of time in working memory load; and discuss the possibilities offered by electroencephalography (EEG) to provide a continuous and objective measure of cognitive load. This article provides a short introduction to the contributions in this issue.     

Guidelines for Choosing Cognitive Load Measures in Perceptually Rich Environments

Cognitive load measurement is a methodological issue of high importance in all learning settings involving a high perceptual richness, such as virtual and augmented reality. As a result of the growing number of cognitive load measurement methods and surveys, it can be difficult to choose the optimal measurement instrument for learning tasks in perceptually rich environments. Current research suggests that survey-based methods do not necessarily have to be less valid than physiological measures. Furthermore, in several studies, single-item measures of cognitive load have shown a high negative correspondence with learning outcomes. A trend toward a more fine-grained analysis of different components of cognitive load can be observed, but the ability to detect cognitive load depends on selecting an appropriate survey for the specific task. Based on this narrative overview on current developments in cognitive load measurement, recommendations for deciding on a cognitive load measurement method are given.     

样例学习认知负荷理论的研究及其展望

文章回顾了样例学习研究的起源与发展,主要介绍了其理论依据——认知负荷理论,并分别围绕外在认知负荷、内在认知负荷以及相关认知负荷介绍了最新国内外样例学习的设计方法:材料的整合、子目标、不完整样例、错误样例、诱发自我解释问题、多种解题方法比较等,最后在现有研究成果上指出样例学习研究的发展趋势和有待进一步解决的问题。     

认知负荷理论视角下的微课程多媒体课件设计

微课程以其短小精悍、随时随地的特性渐渐步入教育领域。与此同时,如何设计微课程的多媒体课件,使其在短时间内充分展现知识内容,并符合学习者的学习规律,成为微课程设计的焦点。从认知负荷理论视角,分析了学习过程中的认知负荷情况,并结合大量实例,实践了降低啄生性认知负荷、无关性认矢口负荷,以硬提高相关性认知负荷的策略和方法,实现了认知负荷在微课程课件设计中的导向性作用。     

Cognitive Load and Working Memory in Multimedia Learning: Conceptual and Measurement Issues

This article reviews contemporary research on multimedia learning that uses cognitive load theory as the major theoretical framework. In particular, we address the extent to which working memory has been conceptualized and measured in this research, what kind of subjective measures of cognitive load have been used and whether such measures are combined with other measures of cognitive load, and how results from subjective measures have been related to learning and achievement. The findings show that most of the reviewed studies did not include any clear conceptualization or measurement of working memory, used only general subjective measures containing one or very few items, and did not report findings consistent with the hypothesized relationship between cognitive load and multimedia learning. The findings are discussed in relation to the broader goal of improving research on cognitive load in the context of multimedia learning.     

Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions

Traditionally, Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) has focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load so that available cognitive resources can be fully devoted to learning. This article strengthens the cognitive base of CLT by linking cognitive processes to the processes used by biological evolution. The article discusses recent developments in CLT related to the current view in instructional design that real-life tasks should be the driving force for complex learning. First, the complexity, or intrinsic cognitive load, of such tasks is often high so that new methods are needed to manage cognitive load. Second, complex learning is a lengthy process requiring learners motivational states and levels of expertise development to be taken into account. Third, this perspective requires more advanced methods to measure expertise and cognitive load so that instruction can be flexibly adapted to individual learners needs. Experimental studies are reviewed to illustrate these recent developments. Guidelines for future research are provided.     

Extending Cognitive Load Theory to Incorporate Working Memory Resource Depletion: Evidence from the Spacing Effect

Depletion of limited working memory resources may occur following extensive mental effort resulting in decreased performance compared to conditions requiring less extensive mental effort. This “depletion effect” can be incorporated into cognitive load theory that is concerned with using the properties of human cognitive architecture, especially working memory, when designing instruction. Two experiments were carried out on the spacing effect that occurs when learning that is spaced by temporal gaps between learning episodes is superior to identical, massed learning with no gaps between learning episodes. Using primary school students learning mathematics, it was found that students obtained lower scores on a working memory capacity test (Experiments 1 and 2) and higher ratings of cognitive load (Experiment 2) after massed than after spaced practice. The reduction in working memory capacity may be attributed to working memory resource depletion following the relatively prolonged mental effort associated with massed compared to spaced practice. An expansion of cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion along with instructional design implications, including the spacing effect, is discussed.     

Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations,Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives

Over the last few years, cognitive load theory has progressed and advanced rapidly. The articles in this special issue, which document those advances, are based on contributions to the 3rd International Cognitive Load Theory Conference (2009), Heerlen, The Netherlands. The articles of this special issue on cognitive load theory discuss new conceptualizations of the different categories of cognitive load, an integrated research perspective of process-oriented and cognitive load approaches to collaborative learning, an integrated research perspective of cognitive and social–cognitive approaches to example-based learning, and a specification of the theory focusing on the acquisition of generalized knowledge structures as a means to facilitate flexible problem-solving skills. This article provides a short introduction to the theory, discusses some of its recent advances, and provides an overview of the contributions to this issue.     

认知负荷理论与英语听力练习材料的设计

在语言收听过程中,记忆、尤其是瞬时记忆,是理解的前提。“认知负荷理论”吸收和应用了认知信息加工理论关于注意短时记忆的研究成果,认为学习者的工作记忆容量是有限的,工作记忆的限制性成为了学习的主要障碍;认为通过教学设计尽量减少学习任务中不必要的认知负荷,使工作记忆的容量更多地集中于将要学习的材料中,从而促进学习。文章探讨了在认知负荷理论指导下的英语听力练习材料的设计。     

A Cognitive Load Approach to Collaborative Learning: United Brains for Complex Tasks

This article presents a review of research comparing the effectiveness of individual learning environments with collaborative learning environments. In reviewing the literature, it was determined that there is no clear and unequivocal picture of how, when, and why the effectiveness of these two approaches to learning differ, a result which may be due to differing complexities of the learning tasks used in the research and the concomitant load imposed on the learner’s cognitive system. Based upon cognitive load theory, it is argued that learning by an individual becomes less effective and efficient than learning by a group of individuals as task complexity increases. Dividing the processing of information across individuals is useful when the cognitive load is high because it allows information to be divided across a larger reservoir of cognitive capacity. Although such division requires that information be recombined and that processing be coordinated, under high load conditions, these costs are minimal compared to the gain achieved by this division of labor. In contrast, under low load conditions, an individual can adequately carry out the required processing activities, and the costs of recombination and coordination are relatively more substantial. Implications of these ideas for research and practice of collaborative learning are discussed.     

Cognitive Load Theory: A Broader View on the Role of Memory in Learning and Education

According to cognitive load theory (CLT), the limitations of working memory (WM) in the learning of new tasks together with its ability to cooperate with an unlimited long-term memory (LTM) for familiar tasks enable human beings to deal effectively with complex problems and acquire highly complex knowledge and skills. With regard to WM, CLT has focused to a large extent on learning task characteristics, and to a lesser extent on learner characteristics to manage WM load and optimize learning through instructional design. With regard to LTM, explanations of human learning and cognition have mainly focused on domain-general skills, instead of domain-specific knowledge held in LTM. The contributions to this special issue provide a broader cognitive load view on the role of memory in learning and education by presenting the historical roots and conceptual development of the concept of WM, as well as the theoretical and practical implications of current debates about WM mechanisms (Cowan 2014), by presenting an updated model of cognitive load in which the physical learning environment is considered a distinct causal factor for WM load (Choi et al. 2014), by an experimental demonstration of the effects of persistent pain on the available WM resources for learning (Smith and Ayres 2014), and by using aspects of evolutionary educational psychology to argue for the primacy of domain-specific knowledge in human cognition (Tricot and Sweller 2014).     

Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Load Theory, Four-Component Instructional Design, and Self-Directed Learning

This article explores the opportunities to apply cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design to self-directed learning. Learning tasks are defined as containing three elements: learners must (a) perform the tasks, (b) assess their task performance, and (c) select future tasks for improving their performance. Principles to manage intrinsic and extraneous load for performing learning tasks, such as simple-to-complex ordering and fading-guidance strategies, are also applicable to assessing performance and selecting tasks. Moreover, principles to increase germane load, such as high variability and self-explanation prompts, are also applicable to assessment and selection. It is concluded that cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design provide a solid basis for a research program on self-directed learning.     

基于认知负荷理论的教学媒体设计

首先对认知负荷的概念含义、主要观点和分类做简单扼要的论述。认知负荷理论提出了一些能减少学习者认知负荷,提高学习效率,并对教学媒体设计有指导作用的教学效应:分散注意力效应、双重感官效应、独立交互元素效应、元素交互效应及冗余效应。在阐述这些教学效应的基础上,分别给出它们在教学媒体设计中应用的例子。