Cognitive styles: Some information and implications for instructional design

A fresh approach to instructional design, one that emphasizes the importance of cognitive style as a learner characteristic, is presented here. The authors report that 11 dimensions of the characteristic have been found, suggesting that individuals differ in the way they process information. Noting that cognitive styles are stable, resistant to change by training and bear little relation to general ability, the authors advocate assisting the learner whose information-processing pattern is not compatible with the task to be learned by plannedsupplantation involving overt alteration of the task requirement with which the learner is having difficulty. They propose a three-step instructional design plan with which to move“beyond individual instruction to individualized instruction” in which“differences in learners need not result in differences in learning.”     

Cognitive design for instructional design

There is strong interest in the field of instructional design in building expert systems that can provide advice to inexperienced instructional designers. This paper questions whether the expert systems model to advice-giving is in fact appropriate for a design process such as instructional design. An alternate approach based on case-based reasoning and the critic approach to advice-giving is considered to be better adapted to the cognitive needs of this task. The cognitive constraints of the task are used to orient the design of an instructional design workbench. The concept of an ID workbench illustrates the direct application of cognitive science to a complex practical task in the area of design.     

Paging and scrolling: Cognitive styles in learning from hypermedia

This study investigates the navigational patterns and learning achievement of university students with different cognitive styles, on hypermedia learning environments using paging or scrolling. The global–local subscales of Sternberg's Thinking Styles Inventory, two hypermedia, one using paging, the other using scrolling, a multiple choice achievement test, and a questionnaire to collect the students' satisfaction on paging/scrolling were used as data collection tools. This study finds that the cognitive style and paging/scrolling, together or separately, neither affected the learning nor the satisfaction of learners. Students with different cognitive styles using paging or scrolling did all learn well, with no statistically significant difference. Also the navigation patterns did not seem to depend on cognitive style; that is, the frequencies of using the navigation tools were not significantly different.     

The role of context in learning and instructional design

Context is a pervasive and potent force in any learning event. Yet instructional design models contain little guidance about how to accommodate contextual elements to improve learning and transfer. This paper defines context, outlines its levels and types, specifies some pertinent contextual factors within these types, suggests methods for conducting a contextual analysis and utilizing its results for instructional design, and outlines future issues for context-based instructional design. The incorporation of a contextual approach to instruction will make our design models systemic as well as systematic.     

Cognitive monitoring: From learning theory to instructional applications

Learners may choose a number of techniques to monitor their cognitive operations and thereby enhance retention of information. Monitoring strategies for information processing, whether student-initiated or teacher-initiated, affect memorability. Future educational processes will make use of interactive media (microcomputers, videodiscs, etc.), as well as printed texts, to support the longterm goal of information retention. This is the fourth ECTJ/ERIC-IR Young Scholar Paper, an annual award initiated to stimulate writing by young professionals in the field of instructional technology. Preparation of the paper was supported by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources at Syracuse, N.Y.     

Cognitive styles, cultural pluralism and effective teaching and learning

In a pluralistic society, there is a need for increased sensitivity in the selection of teaching styles. This paper considers evidence which shows that future responses to teaching and learning style are determined in pre-school years by the child's socio-cultural environment. The teaching methods in common use in Britain, however, presuppose cognitive styles current in white middle-class culture, which may be inappropriate to children from other backgrounds. While some will respond only to co-operative, social methods, others will act analytically and competitively. Factors of social class are also considered. The paper argues that curriculum, methodology and materials should allow all children to identify with the educational process, and should enable them eventually to function bi-cognitively. Teachers will therefore need to recognize the range of cognitive and learning styles among their pupils.

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Zusammenfassung In einer pluralistischen Gesellschaft ist mehr Sensitivität in der Auswahl von Lehrstilen nötig. In diesem Bericht werden Belege berücksichtigt, die zeigen, daß künftige Reaktionen auf Lehr- und Lernrichtungen bereits in den Vorschuljahren durch das soziokulturelle Umfeld des Kindes geprägt werden. Die in Großbritannien üblichen Lehrmethoden gehen jedoch von den in einer weißen mittelständischen Kultur vorherrschenden kognitiven Stilen aus, die für Kinder anderer kultureller Hintergründer ungeeignet sind. Reagieren die einen nur auf kooperative, soziale Methoden, handeln die anderen analytisch und kompetitiv. Der Verfasser vertritt die Auffassung, daß sowohl das Curriculum als auch die Methodologie und die Materialien allen Kindern erlauben sollten, sich mit dem Erziehungsprozeß zu identifizieren und schließlich bikognitiv zu agieren. Lehrer sollten daher den Umfang der kognitiven und lernbezogenen Stilrichtungen ihrer Schüler erkennen können.

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Résumé Une société pluraliste nécessite une sensibilité plus grande lors de la sélection de modes d'enseignement. Le présent article examine les faits qui montrent que les réactions futures au style d'enseignement et d'apprentissage sont déterminées au cours de la période préscolaire par l'environnement socio-culturel de l'enfant. Les méthodes d'enseignement utilisées communément en Grande-Bretagne présupposent des styles cognitifs courants dans une culture blanche de classe moyenne, qui peuvent être incompatibles avec la situation d'enfants issus d'autres milieux. Tandis que certains ne réagiront qu'à des méthodes coopératives et sociales, d'autres agiront de manière analytique et compétitive. On étudie également les facteurs sociaux. Cet article soutient que les programmes éducatifs, la méthodologie et les matériels devraient permettre à tous les enfants de s'identifier avec le processus éducatif et de fonctionner éventuellement de manière bi-cognitive. Les enseignants devront par conséquent reconnaître la diversité des styles cognitifs et d'apprentissage parmi les élèves.... teachers may be knowledgeable, charismatic, dramatic, hardworking, caring and dedicated, and still not be effective with students whose learning styles are not complemented by their teaching styles. (Dunn and Dunn, 1979, p. 241).

     

基于学习风格和学习策略的大学英语教学模式研究

大学英语教学是建立在中学英语教学之上的。建立在这种基础上的大学英语教学,不仅应拓宽他们的词汇量,还应增高他们的英语口语能力、阅读能力和写作能力。由此,作为主观层面的能力构建,就应围绕着"学习风格"和"学习策略"来展开。基于本国教育大环境使然,无法照搬它国的先进教学方式。因此,应从环境适应性的角度来构建具体的教学模式。     

Preservice teacher use of learning and instructional design principles

Although many instructional technologists have suggested that teachers should be trained in using instructional design models, few studies have been conducted to determine if teachers can be successful in acquiring and applying these models. The purpose of this study was to examine preservice teacher success in acquiring and applying principles of learning and instructional design. Preservice teachers enrolled in a professional teacher preparation program were taught the essentials of learning and competency-based instruction and were required to plan a lesson using these concepts. Results indicate that most of the preservice teachers were successful in acquiring and using the principles of learning and instructional design.     

An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments

The instructional technology community is in the midst of a philosophical shift from a behaviorist to a constructivist framework, a move that may begin to address the growing rift between formal school learning and real-life learning. One theory of learning that has the capacity to promote authentic learning is that of situated learning. The purpose of this three-part study was first, to identify critical characteristics of a situated learning environment from the extensive literature base on the subject; second, to operationalize the critical characteristics of a situated learning environment by designing a multimedia program that incorporated the identified characteristics; and third, to investigate students' perceptions of their experiences using a multimedia package based on a situated learning framework. The learning environment, for preservice teachers, comprised a multimedia program on assessment in mathematics together with recommended implementation conditions for the classroom. Eight students were observed and interviewed to explore their perceptions of the situated learning environment. Findings suggest that the use of the situated learning framework provided effective instructional design guidelines for the design of an environment for the acquisition of advanced knowledge. Since 1992, as a Senior Instructional Designer, she has worked principally in multimedia and Web-based projects. He has been teaching with, and researching innovative uses of, instructional technologies in secondary schools and universities for the past 20 years. The authors would like to thank Professor Tom Reeves for his encouragement and support, and to acknowledge the significant role he has played in the development of our ideas and research direction.     

Learning styles and approaches to learning in excellent and average first-year university students

We assessed the learning approaches and learning styles of a sample of 148 excellent students selected from 11 degrees from nine centers of the Polytechnic University of Valencia (Spain), and we compared the results with those of a sample of 133 average students from the same centers. We found that excellent students took deeper approach than average students and that they preferred reflective and theoretical learning styles. Average students adopted a more surface approach, and they preferred active and pragmatic learning styles. Greater academic achievement was related to the deep approach and to the reflective and theoretical learning styles. Poorer academic achievement was related to the surface approach and an active style. University professors may reinforce the deep approach by placing high aims for students which go well beyond reproducing knowledge but use other complementary methods other than expository teaching: problem solving, case studies, designing projects, raising questions, discussion and negotiation in the classroom, etc. To accomplish this, teachers must encourage students to be committed, and these methods help do that. It also helps to introduce more demanding evaluation procedures which do not merely involve repeating what has been learnt, but include training guidance that offers students feedback.     

Cognitive task analysis for instructional design: Applications in distance education

The increasing complexity of the subjectmatters taught through distance education calls for a cognitive approach to instructional design. Cognitive task analysis‐based instructional design (CTA‐BID) is especially appropriate for distance education, which requires high‐fidelity instructional materials that teach cognitive content with little or no classroom instruction. CTA‐BID organises instructional materials around the results of a cognitive task analysis that identifies the optimal knowledge structures, mental models, strategies, and skills underlying expertise in the subject matter. CTA‐BID has produced innovative instructional programmes aimed at teaching cognitive skills, accelerating the development of expertise, and improving student performance and training efficiency. This article provides an overview of CTA‐BID and its applications in the design of instructional and testing materials for distance education. I also review recent developments in education, psychology, and instructional design that complement CTA‐BID.     

Toward an instructional design model based on learning objects

The present moment in the history of higher education requires setting strategies and specific action plans to guarantee a place in the highly competitive and demanding world scenario. The incorporation of information and communication technologies is one of the feasible paths to be considered, but this requires formulating proposals insuring appropriate use of said technologies seeking improvement of education quality. For this purpose, Universidad de La Sabana has developed an instructional design model based on learning objects.     

Cognitive learning styles and digital equity: searching for the middle way

This research is driven by a desire to understand the lifelong learner in the context of styles of learning and the emerging implications of technology enhanced learning for digital equity. Recognising cognitive learning styles is the first step educators need to take in order to be most effective in working with students of diversity and bridging across formal and informal settings. Learning environments as a characterising feature of learning styles have undergone unprecedented change over the past decade with learning environments now blending physical and virtual space. To support the increasing diversity of learners pedagogy has to be fair, culturally responsive, equitable and relevant to the ‘virtual generation’. This, in turn, will inform our understanding of the ‘middle way’ in recognising cognitive learning styles, associated cultural context, and the implications to digital pedagogy equity.     

Liberating learning object design from the learning style of student instructional designers

Learning objects are a new form of learning resource, and the design of these digital environments has many facets. To investigate senior instructional design students' use of reflection tools in designing learning objects, a series of studies was conducted using the Reflective Action Instructional Design and Learning Object Review Instrument tools. Analysis revealed that most participants found the reflection questions useful in design but also that intensive use of the tools is needed to free learning object design from the personal learning traits of the designers.     

Cognitive development and instructional theory

The foundations of the cognitive-developmental curriculum movement are briefly examined in this paper. The key features of this movement are the recommendations it makes in three areas: curriculum sequencing, curriculum content, and teaching strategies. Each of these areas is critically examined. It is concluded that the grounds for all proposals are purely theoretical. When the data are considered, they either contradict specific proposals or provide no direct evidence.     

Cognitive style and instructional preferences

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between learners' cognitive styles and their instructional preferences. The sample consisted of 240 business studies students at a UK university. Subjects' cognitive styles were assessed using the Cognitive Styles Analysis (which assesses the wholist-analytical and verbaliser-imager dimensions of style) and their instructional preferences assessed using an instructional preferences inventory which consisted of three sub-inventories (instructional method, instructional media and assessment method). Overall subjects favoured dependent methods, print based media and informal assessment methods. There was a significant main effect of wholist-analytical style on collaborative method preference (role play, group discussions and business games) and non-print based media preference (overhead transparencies, slides and videos). There was an interaction of the two dimensions of style and gender in their effect on informal assessment method preferences (individual and group assignments and multiple choice and short answer-type questions). The findings are discussed in terms of: (i) models of the cognitive style construct; (ii) the practical implications of individual differences in style and preference.     

Self-regulated learning: Implications for the design of instructional media

This paper describes the implications of principles derived from cognitive social learning theory and Vygotsky's socially oriented developmental perspective for the design of technology-based instructional materials. Vygotsky's ideas about the kinds of experience that facilitate intellectual growth in the “zone of proximal development” suggest that contemporary mathematics instruction (usually characterized by presentations to large groups, or by individualized instruction dominated by worksheets) deny students opportunities for individual interaction with and supportive guidance by adult experts or competent peers. It is proposed that such instruction fails to support the transfer of regulatory responsibility from teacher to student. The derivation of design specifications for the use of instructional technologies to overcome these limitations of contemporary instruction in mathematics is described. Instructional materials designed to promote self-regulation strategies as well as procedural and declarative knowledge in mathematics are presented.     

The Jasper experiment: An exploration of issues in learning and instructional design

The Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series is an example of a video-based instructional macrocontext for complex problem generation and problem solving. The Jasper series and curricular materials are described and illustrated in this article. The theoretical framework underlying the series includes assumptions about educational goals and the nature of learning, including the importance of generative activities and cooperative learning situations. The authors argue that the Jasper series affords generative and cooperative learning activities in a way that traditional mathematics problem-solving materials do not. However, whether these features are utilized depends on the teaching model at work in the classroom. Three models of teaching—basics first, structured problem solving, and guided generation—that can be applied to the Jasper series are outlined. The strengths and weaknesses of each are discussed, and associated assessment issues are raised. The article concludes by pointing to the need for research on the impact of differing instructional design decisions.Members of the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt who contributed to this paper are Linda Barron, John Bransford, Olin Campbell, Ben Ferron, Laura Goin, Elizabeth Goldman, Susan Goldman, Ted Hasselbring, Allison Heath, Charles Kinzer, James Pellegrino, Kirsten Rewey, Robert Sherwood, Nancy Vye, Susan Warren, Susan Williams.