Mutual influence of marital conflict and children's behavior problems: shared and nonshared family risks

This within-family, longitudinal study including biological and stepfamilies investigated mutual influences between marital conflict and children's behavior problems. Children (4 to 17 years; N=296) residing in 127 families drawn from a general population study were investigated at Time 1 and again 2 years later. These nested data were analyzed using multilevel modeling, controlling for previous child behavior or marital conflict. Marital conflict about children predicted change in children's behavior. Children's behavior also predicted an increase in marital conflict, particularly in stepfamilies. Differences between siblings in exposure to conflict and the extent to which siblings were a source of argument increased more in stepfamilies than in biological families. Boys were exposed to more conflict over time than were girls.     

The significance of insecure and disorganized attachment for children's internalizing symptoms: a meta-analytic study

This meta-analytic review examines the association between attachment and internalizing symptomatology during childhood, and compares the strength of this association with that for externalizing symptomatology. Based on 42 independent samples (N = 4,614), the association between insecurity and internalizing symptoms was small, yet significant (d = 0.15, CI 0.06~0.25) and not moderated by assessment age of internalizing problems. Avoidance, but not resistance (d = 0.03, CI -0.11~0.17) or disorganization (d = 0.08, CI -0.06~0.22), was significantly associated with internalizing symptoms (d = 0.17, CI 0.03~0.31). Insecurity and disorganization were more strongly associated with externalizing than internalizing symptoms. Discussion focuses on the significance of attachment for the development of internalizing versus externalizing symptomatology.     

Parental risk attitudes and children's secondary school track choice

Although it is well-known that individuals’ risk attitudes are related to behavioral outcomes such as smoking, portfolio decisions, and educational attainment, there is virtually no evidence of whether parental risk attitudes affect the educational attainment of their dependent children. We add to this literature and examine children's secondary school track choice in Germany where tracking occurs at age ten and has a strong binding character. Using risk indicators for different domains, we mainly find evidence of an inverse relation between parental risk aversion and children's secondary school track, with some heterogeneity depending on whether parents’ risk willingness is modeled separately or jointly, by child gender, or by the risk measure used.     

Acculturation, substance use, and deviant behavior: examining separation and family conflict as mediators

This longitudinal study examined how separation and family conflict mediated the effects of two acculturation variables (English language use and generational status) on substance use (alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use) and deviant behavior outcomes in a Mexican American high school age sample. Structural equation modeling indicated that separation was a significant mediator of the relationship between acculturation and alcohol use, tobacco use, and deviant behavior. Family conflict mediated the effects of acculturation on marijuana use and deviant behavior. Model comparisons across gender groups suggested that generational status was an influential acculturation measure for females but not males. Additionally, English language use maintained a direct effect on marijuana use among females, whereas this relationship was mediated by separation for males.     

Parental coping with children's negative emotions: relations with children's emotional and social responding

This study examined the relation between parents' reactions to children's negative emotions and social competence. Additionally, the role of parental emotional distress in children's emotional socialization was examined. The emotional reactions of 57 preschoolers (33 girls, 24 boys; M age = 59.2 months) were observed during their free-play interactions. Parents (mostly mothers) completed questionnaires about their reactions to children's negative emotions. An index of children's social competence was obtained from teachers. Results indicated that the relation between harsh parental coping strategies and children's emotional responding was moderated by parental distress. In addition, the relation of the interaction of parental coping and distress to children's social competence was mediated by children's level of emotional intensity. It was concluded that distressed parents who use harsh coping strategies in response to children's negative emotions have children who express emotion in relatively intense ways. In turn, these children find it relatively difficult to behave in a socially competent manner.     

Marital conflict and disruption of children's sleep

Marital conflict was examined as a predictor of the quality and quantity of sleep in a sample of healthy 8- to 9-year-olds. Parents and children reported on marital conflict, the quantity and quality of children's sleep were examined through an actigraph worn for 7 consecutive nights, and child sleepiness was derived from child and mother reports. Increased marital conflict was associated with disruptions in the quantity and quality of children's sleep as well as subjective sleepiness, even after controlling for child age, ethnic group membership, socioeconomic status, sex, and body mass index. The results support the sensitization hypothesis in that exposure to marital conflict may influence an important facet of children's biological regulation, namely sleep.     

Parental reactions to children's negative emotions: longitudinal relations to quality of children's social functioning

Relations between self-reported parental reactions to children's negative emotions (PNRs) and children's socially appropriate/problem behavior and negative emotionality were examined longitudinally. Evidence was consistent with the conclusion that relations between children's externalizing (but not internalizing) emotion and parental punitive reactions to children's negative emotions are bidirectional. Reports of PNRs generally were correlated with low quality of social functioning. In structural models, mother-reported problem behavior at ages 10-12 was at least marginally predicted from mother-reported problem behavior, children's regulation, and parental punitive or distress reactions. Moreover, parental distress and punitive reactions at ages 6-8 predicted reports of children's regulation at ages 8-10, and regulation predicted parental punitive reactions at ages 10-12. Father reports of problem behavior at ages 10-12 were predicted by earlier problem behavior and parental distress or punitive reactions; some of the relations between regulation and parental reactions were similar to those in the models for mother-reported problem behavior. Parental perceptions of their reactions were substantially correlated over 6 years. Some nonsupportive reactions declined in the early to mid-school years, but all increased into late childhood/early adolescence.     

The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation of different types of negative emotion and regulation and control to 55- to 97-month-olds' internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. Parents and teachers provided information on children's (N = 214) adjustment, dispositional regulation and control, and emotion, and children's regulation was observed during several behavioral tasks. Internalizing was defined in two ways: as social withdrawal (to avoid overlap of items with measures of emotionality) or, more broadly, as anxiety, depression, and psychosomatic complaints. In general, children with externalizing problems, compared with children with internalizing problems and nondisordered children, were more prone to anger, impulsivity, and low regulation. Children with internalizing symptoms were prone to sadness, low attentional regulation, and low impulsivity. Relations between internalizing problems and emotionality were more frequent when the entire internalizing scale was used. Findings suggest that emotion and regulation are associated with adjustment in systematic ways and that there is an important difference between effortful control and less voluntary modes of control.     

A prospective investigation of appraisals as mediators of the link between interparental conflict and child adjustment

This longitudinal study tested the role of children's appraisals of threat and self-blame as mediators of the association between interparental conflict and child adjustment in a sample of 298 Welsh children ages 11 to 12 years. Exposure to higher levels of interparental conflict at Time 1 predicted greater perceived threat and self-blame at Time 2, after accounting for the effects of Time 1 adjustment and appraisals on later appraisals. Perceived threat in turn was associated with increased internalizing problems at Tune 2, and self-blame was associated with higher externalizing problems. The pattern of results was largely consistent for child and parent reports of conflict and for boys and girls, though some gender differences were found in associations between appraisals and adjustment.     

Parental responses to sibling conflict: the effects of development and parent gender

Mothers' and fathers' responses to their children's spontaneous sibling conflicts were observed using a wireless microphone system. Eighty-eight two-child, two-parent families participated in three home observations. Secondborn children were 3 to 5 years of age and firstborn children were 2 to 4 years older. Associations between parents' enactment of three categories of conflict management strategies (passive nonintervention, child-centered management, and parental control) and sibling interaction quality varied according to children's ages, gender of the monitoring parent, and type of strategy used. Passive nonintervention was highly associated with the occurrence of subsequent conflict. Younger sibling dyads, in particular, behaved more antagonistically when their parents did not intervene. In contrast, older sibling dyads were less involved and less close when their mothers intervened in any way. Results suggest that relatively younger sibling dyads may benefit more than older dyads from parental intervention.     

A reinforcement model of the relationships of supervisors' general communication styles and conflict management styles to task attraction

The conceptual similarities and logical relationships between the constructs of general communication styles and conflict management styles suggested that they should be related in use by supervisors. Based upon reward and punishment concepts of reinforcement that underpin attraction theories, we predicted certain relationships among these styles and the task attraction of supervisors. To test these expectations, 227 questionnaires from subordinates in 12 companies served as the data base. Hypotheses were supported demonstrating substantial relationships between general communication styles and conflict management styles, as well as very substantial relationships between the style constructs and task attraction of supervisors.     

Learning How to Learn: Parental ethnotheories and young children's preparation for school

This paper discusses one aspect of the findings from an ethnographic study of the ways in which four-year-old children learn, and are taught, at home and in their Reception class. The children were from two distinctive cultural backgrounds within the same urban neighbourhood: one-half belonged to UK ('Anglo') families, and one-half to families from Bangladesh. They were observed and assessed throughout their first school year, and additional data were collected from interviews with parents, practitioners and the children themselves. Analysis of the data suggested that one way of understanding the variation in the children's experiences was through the ethnotheories, or cultural belief systems, of their home communities--such as their parents' concepts of childhood, and their theories of intelligence and instruction. The paper argues that such differences in children's home preparation have consequences for their school experience, and carry implications for their school providers. The study of parental ethnotheories, therefore, may help to explain, and alleviate, the differences in school achievement of children from diverse backgrounds. However, accessing respondents' personal theories presents both ethical and methodological problems, particularly when the researcher is working with socially disadvantaged groups. La recherche dans les ethnothe´ories parentales, ou dans les syste ¤ mes de croyance culturels, peut contribuer a ¤ notre compre´hension de l'expe´rience scolaire diffe´rentielle et de l'accomplissement des enfants de classes diffe´rentes et de milieux culturels diffe´rents. Cependant, l'acce ¤ s a ¤ les the´ories personnelles des personnes interroge´es, que peut-etre ils sont inconscients de posse´der, pre´sente proble ¤ mes e´thiques et methodologiques, particulie ¤ rement quand les chercheurs travaillent avec des groupes qui sont de´savantage´s socialement. Cet essai pre´sente quelques de´couvertes d'une e´tude ethnographique sur les fac¸ons dans lequelles des enfants de quatre ans apprennent, et sont enseigne´s, a ¤ la maison et dans leur classe de re´ception. La expe´rience d'apprendre a ¤ la maison est diffe´rente pour chacun des 16 enfants, et dans chaque cas est forme´e par les croyances parentales -- en particulier leurs concepts sur l'enfance, et sur les ro´les des parents, et leurs the´ories sur l'intelligence et l'instruction. Ceux-ci refle ¤ tent partiellement la position des familles dans la communaute´ "anglo" ou bangladaise dans leur voisinage partage´. Quand les diffe´rences dans la pre´paration e´ducative des enfants a ¤ la maison sont comprises, il y a des implications e´videntes pour leurs pourvoyeurs d'e´ducation. La investigacio´n sobre las etnoteor L ´as paternales, o sea sobre los sistemas culturales de la creencia, pueden contribuir a nuestra comprensio´n de la experiencia diferencial escolar y del logro de los nin ¨ os de clases y or L ´genes culturales diferentes. Sin embargo, el acceso a las teor L ´as personales de los respondientes, que quizas ellos mismos no son conscientes de poseer, presenta problemas e´ticos as L ´ como tambie´n metodolo´gicos, particularmente cuando los investigadores trabajan con grupos socialmente desventajados. Este ensayo presenta algunas conclusiones de un estudio etnogra´fico sobre el modo en que los nin ¨ os de cuatro an ¨ os de edad aprenden, y se les ensen ¨ a, en casa y en su clase de recepcio´n. La experiencia de aprendisaje en el hogar es diferente para cada uno de los 16 nin ¨ os, y en cada caso esta´ formada por creencias paternales -- en particular sobre sus conceptos de nin ¨ ez, y el rol que juegan los padres, y de sus teor L ´as sobre la inteligencia y la instruccio´n. Estos conceptos reflejan en parte la posicio´n de las familias dentro de la comunidad 'Anglo' o banglades L ´ en su vecindario compartido. Cuando las diferencias en la preparacio´n educativa en el hogar de los nin ¨ os son comprendidas, hay implicaciones evidentes para sus proveedores de escuela.     

Parental physical and psychological aggression: Psychological symptoms in young adults

ObjectiveThe purpose of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between various levels of parent-child physical violence and psychological symptoms reported by college students, while controlling for demographic variables, severity and frequency of violence, and co-occurrence of parental psychological aggression.MethodParticipants included 298 college students ranging in age from 18 to 27 years. Participants completed a demographic information form, the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), and the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC).ResultsResults of analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance indicated that individuals in the child physical abuse group obtained higher BSI scores compared to individuals in the corporal punishment and no violence groups. Few differences were observed between mild and severe corporal punishment groups. Multiple regression analyses indicated that when frequency of corporal punishment, child physical abuse, and psychological aggression, along with demographic variables, were considered simultaneously, psychological aggression was the most unique predictor of BSI scores.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that severe forms of physical violence were associated with long-term psychological symptoms. When demographic variables and the frequency of several parent aggression variables were considered simultaneously, however, psychological aggression was most predictive of psychological outcome. These findings suggest that messages communicated to a child via psychological aggression may be more important in contributing to psychological outcome than the actual occurrence of physical violence toward the child.Practice implicationsThe current study supports the premise that severe physical aggression experienced in childhood is associated with serious psychological consequences in adulthood. In contrast, individuals who experienced less severe forms of parent-child violence, such as corporal aggression, exhibited similar symptom levels to those reporting no parent-child violence. When severe physical aggression, corporal aggression, and psychological aggression were considered simultaneously, however, psychological aggression emerged as the most unique predictor of psychological outcome. Researchers and clinicians who work with adults reporting childhood histories of severe parent-child violence should be aware of the importance of parent-child psychological aggression in contributing to psychological outcome.     

Pre-service teachers' representations of children's understanding of mathematical concepts: conflicts and conflict resolution

The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which research experience could enhance pre-service teachers' understanding of children's knowledge of mathematical concepts. A group of five pre-service teachers designed and conducted a study of children's understanding of fractions. As participant-observers throughout their study we gathered evidence of change in pre-service teachers' representations of children's knowledge of fractions. The focus of our observations was on the conflicts generated by the gaps between the pre-service teachers' research findings and their representations of the children's knowledge of fractions. Results indicate that research experience is fruitful in developing an inquisitive disposition in pre-service teachers and in sensitizing future teachers to children's knowledge of a mathematical concept. Pre-service teachers became familiar with the research literature regarding children's understanding of fractions, they questioned the typical instructional sequence of teaching fractions and they scrutinized methods of assessing children's knowledge of mathematical topics.     

Childhood victimization and alcohol symptoms in females: causal inferences and hypothesized mediators

OBJECTIVE: Previous research has reported a relationship between childhood victimization experiences and alcohol problems in females. This paper has two distinct goals: (1) to determine whether it is appropriate to make a causal inference regarding the association between early child abuse and neglect and alcohol symptoms in females; and (2) to examine five potential mechanisms (depression, worthlessness, social isolation/loneliness, low self esteem, and using alcohol and/or drugs to cope) that may mediate the relationship between child abuse and neglect and alcohol symptomatology. METHOD: Substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect from 1967 to 1971 were matched on sex, age, race, and approximate social class with nonabused and non-neglected children and followed prospectively into young adulthood. Subjects were administered a 2-h in-person interview, including the NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS-III-R) to assess alcohol use and abuse. Analyses are restricted to females in the sample (N = 582). RESULTS: Structural equation modeling provides support for the inference that childhood victimization plays a causal role in the development of alcohol symptoms in women. There also is support for the hypothesized mediating role of two mechanisms (depression and using alcohol/drugs to cope), but not for the other mediators. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence from this prospective study suggests that childhood victimization may be one of the causal factors in the development of alcohol problems in females. Interventions should bedirected at abused and neglected females of all ages to help them to deal with depression and to develop coping strategies to prevent the development of serious alcohol problems.     

Parental agreement on child-rearing orientations: relations to parental, marital, family, and child characteristics

Recent research on parental agreement on child-rearing values has found it to be positively related to effective parenting. The exact nature of the relation, however, is not clear. Are they different constructs, or is agreement simply one more variable that describes effective parenting? A sample of 136 families and their preschool children was studied by observation and an extensive self-report questionnaire package. Parental agreement was assessed using the Block Child-rearing Practices Report. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that the agreement score rarely added any information not already provided by the parental effectiveness scores. A Q-factor analysis revealed that the agreement score actually represented agreement to a standard of good parenting. The parents who were high agreers were good parents who agreed with other good parents, while the low agreers were ineffective parents who disagreed with other parents, good or bad. Implications of these results for future research on parental agreement are discussed.     

Proximate regulation by mothers: a demonstration of how differing styles affect young children's behavior

An earlier observational study of mothers and toddlers in the supermarket revealed differential success of 2 styles of maternal behavior. A proactive style of preempting opportunities for misbehavior, in contrast to a reactive style of responding only after misbehavior occurred, was correlated with a lower incidence of undesirable child acts. Here, the 2 styles were studied in the laboratory to explore their function further. In an analog of the supermarket situation, mothers behaved proactively and reactively in trials in which the task was to prevent their 2- or 3-year-old children from playing with desirable toys. Children responded to proactive behavior by engaging in acceptable behaviors longer and by violating fewer rules. The 2-year-old children were less able to comply with the rules. The data illustrate the role parents play in promoting and supporting the development of compliance and self-regulation in children.     

Parental involvement in the development of children's reading skill: a five-year longitudinal study

This article presents the findings of the final phase of a 5-year longitudinal study with 168 middle- and upper middle-class children in which the complex relations among early home literacy experiences, subsequent receptive language and emergent literacy skills, and reading achievement were examined. Results showed that children's exposure to books was related to the development of vocabulary and listening comprehension skills, and that these language skills were directly related to children's reading in grade 3. In contrast, parent involvement in teaching children about reading and writing words was related to the development of early literacy skills. Early literacy skills directly predicted word reading at the end of grade 1 and indirectly predicted reading in grade 3. Word reading at the end of grade 1 predicted reading comprehension in grade 3. Thus, the various pathways that lead to fluent reading have their roots in different aspects of children's early experiences.     

Development and factor structure of a self-report measure for assessing internalizing symptoms of elementary-age children

The development and factor structure of the Internalizing Symptoms Scale for Children (ISSC), a new self-report measure for assessing internalizing symptomatology in children, is detailed. Development of the ISSC was driven by the lack of a children's self-report instrument designed specifically to assess the broad domain of internalizing symptomatology, as well as research findings showing a high degree of comorbidity among internalizing syndromes (e.g., depression, anxiety, somatic complaints, social withdrawal). Thorough and methodologically rigorous procedures were employed during the development of the ISSC to ensure strong content validity as well as clinical utility. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic procedures were utilized on the 54-item ISSC research protocol, resulting in a strong two factor solution for the 48 items retained. Factor 1, Negative Affect/General Distress, includes items that indicate the presence of internalizing symptoms, or in some cases, the absence of optimistic or functional emotional states. Factor 2, Positive Affect, includes items describing positive affect incompatible with internalizing symptoms, or in some cases, items that reflect the absence of internalizing symptoms. Results of the factor analyses are discussed in terms of previous research on affectivity and specific internalizing syndromes or disorders. Potential uses of the ISSC, as well as further research needed, are described. Implications of the present investigation for future assessment and classification studies in the area of child psychopathology are reviewed. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Developmental changes in the structure of shyness and internalizing symptoms from early to middle childhood: A network analysis

Shyness is a temperamental trait that shares considerable conceptual overlap with aspects of internalizing problems, creating difficulties in operationalizing and assessing these two constructs and their association. This study addresses these issues by employing network analyses. Participants were, white, N = 555 children (M_age = 52.45 months, SD = 15.96, 55% girls) followed longitudinally over 4 years (2016–2010) in Norway. Teachers rated child shyness and assessed children's internalizing symptoms. Results suggest that two behavioral shyness traits were the most central aspects of shyness. The centrality of these aspects was robust across age. The most influential symptom connecting internalizing symptoms with shyness was “unhappy.” Shyness became more differentiated with development, and associations between anxiety-related symptoms and shyness increased as children entered formal schooling.