Rats do show primacy and recency effects in memory for lists of spatial locations: A reply to Gaffan

It has been demonstrated that rats display both primacy and recency effects in list-learning experiments for both item- and order-recognition memory for spatial location information. Contrary to a suggestion made by Gaffan (1992) that previous demonstrations of primacy effects in rats are not valid due to statistical and methodological problems, we show that (1) it is not likely that our results are due to experimenter bias and/or nonindependence of trials, (2) primacy and recency effects are obtained whether or not one uses a training criterion, and (3) when many of the published reports from our laboratory are combined, the number of subjects and trials are sufficient to evaluate the validity of primacy and recency effects in list-learning experiments.     

A review of research related to the topological primacy thesis

Piaget and Inhelder (1956) claimed that the young child's intrinsic geometry was first of all topological and then, later, projective and Euclidean. This theory has become known as the topological primacy thesis and it will be referred to as such throughout this paper. Many researchers have supported the theory, yet a few, like Martin (1976a) and Kapadia (1974), have criticised it. This paper consists of a review of work related to the topological primacy thesis and a critique of some aspects of it.     

On quagmires,philosophical and otherwise: A reply to Phillips

This reply addresses three related problems in research on cognitive structure identified by Phillips: (a) the difficulty (impossibility for Phillips?) of inferring cognitive structure from observed behavior, (b) the confounding of cognitive structure with subject‐matter structure, and (c) the validity of construct interpretations of cognitive‐structure measurements. Inference from behavior to cognitive structure can be made if done carefully and cautiously under adequate constraints placed on the data. Cognitive structure is not confounded with subject‐matter structure; to the contrary, cognitive structure has been defined as the student's public understanding of the subject‐matter structure. Extensive prior research has supported cognitive‐structure interpretations of word association, similarity judgment, card sorting, and graph building measurements. Additional criticisms also are discussed.     

How large is the course effect? A reply to Gillmore

Summary Gillmore's criticisms of Romney's (1976) study are themselves open to criticism and should not be permitted to detract from the conclusion that there is a significant, if small, course effect which should somehow be taken into account when interpreting students' ratings of teaching competence.     

论表见代理的性质及法律效力

表见代理是代理制度进一步完善的产物,在代理制度中具有重要地位。《合同法》确立了此项制度。《合同法》是我国在立法上确认表见代理制度的依据,但《合同法》的规定还存在缺陷,需进一步修改和完善,以利于表见代理在实践中具有稳定性。     

Interpreting the differences: A reply to Kaufman

Kaufman's critique of our article was based on a misunderstanding of our purpose and procedures. This reply clarifies those points and suggests further areas of concern regarding the McCarthy Screening Test.     

试论中国画的素描性质

素描是运用特定的材料表现客观对象和表达意图。如果从“表达作者意图”的角度来看,素描的范围可以扩展到任何一个门类的绘画艺术。中国绘画正是运用特点观察法,配以特殊的技法材料,表现客观对象和展现自己意图。绘画是反映作者对客观世界的个人感悟和主观阐述,中国画的表现性与素描相同,画面之物非自然之物,是表现对形体的观察和理解。然西画里所谓的素描在中国画里正是本色。中国画其本质是一种独立意义上的素描,这种观念不存在对中国式或西方式的素描的理解,只存在以什么样的眼光来研究和看待素描与中国画的问题。     

Contrast and value: Beyond the work ethic effect. A reply to Zentall (2008)

Zentall (2008) challenges Arantes and Grace’s (2008) failure to replicate Clement, Feltus, Kaiser, and Zentall (2000) by suggesting that our results may have been due to insufficient training or to subjects’ experimental histories, and that our results are actually consistent with those of Clement et al. when examined closely. On the contrary, our pigeons received more training than Clement et al.’s did, and when an overall measure of preference on test trials was calculated, independent of the effect of initiating event that we reported, there was no evidence of preference for the stimulus preceded by the greater response requirement in our data. Although there have now been two unsuccessful attempts to replicate Clement et al.’s work ethic effect, there is evidence that in some situations, the value of a stimulus, as assessed by transfer tests, varies inversely with the context of reinforcement. It is important to look for convergent results using other procedures and transfer tests, such as resistance to change, to identify the principles that determine when contrast manipulations affect value and when they do not.     

State anxiety and working memory in children: A test of processing efficiency theory

This study investigated the effect of individual differences in state anxiety on tasks tapping the central executive, phonological, and visuo‐spatial components of working memory (WM). It was designed to test Eysenck and Calvo’s processing efficiency theory (PET) which suggests that the phonological and executive components of WM may be important in understanding learning outcomes in anxiety. Typically‐developing children aged 9–10 years were split into high and low state anxiety groups. They performed three WM tasks – forward and backward digit span (assumed to measure phonological and central executive components of WM respectively) and a spatial working memory task (measuring the visuo‐spatial component of WM). Measurements of task accuracy were taken as an indicator of performance outcome or effectiveness. Time taken to complete tasks and a subjective rating of mental effort were taken as measurements of performance efficiency. No differences were found between high and low state anxiety groups in task accuracy for any measure. Children in the high state anxiety group, however, took longer to complete the backward digit span task and reported increased mental effort in the forward digit span task, indicating some effect of anxiety on measures of performance efficiency.