Maternal language to prelinguistic infants: syntactic aspects

Maternal speech to children has been shown to vary by age and language ability of the children. Previous studies have usually involved children over 1 year of age. In this study maternal speech to male and female 4-, 6-, and 8-month-old infants was recorded in the laboratory. Mothers used shorter utterances to 8-month-olds than to 4- or 6-month-olds, presumably in response to the infant's changing level of comprehension. Mothers used more sentences with subjects, verbs, or objects deleted to 8-month-olds and more complex sentences to 4-month-olds.     

Explicit processing demands reveal language modality-specific organization of working memory

The working memory model for Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) predicts that processing differences between language modalities emerge when cognitive demands are explicit. This prediction was tested in three working memory experiments with participants who were Deaf Signers (DS), Hearing Signers (HS), or Hearing Nonsigners (HN). Easily nameable pictures were used as stimuli to avoid confounds relating to sensory modality. Performance was largely similar for DS, HS, and HN, suggesting that previously identified intermodal differences may be due to differences in retention of sensory information. When explicit processing demands were high, differences emerged between DS and HN, suggesting that although working memory storage in both groups is sensitive to temporal organization, retrieval is not sensitive to temporal organization in DS. A general effect of semantic similarity was also found. These findings are discussed in relation to the ELU model.     

Neurobiological aspects of language in children

This article discusses the relevance of the study of the neurobiology of cognitive development, both for an understanding of the neural bases of cognition and of the nature of cognition itself. A key issue is the age at which hemisphere specialization first appears and whether it changes over time. The neuropsychological literature concerning language in both normal and brain-damaged children is reviewed. The usefulness of studying cognition in other clinical disorders and variation in normal cognition is indicated. The various methods used in the research are described and the methodological and interpretational difficulties arising from the diversity of groups studied and the methods used are discussed. The model is advanced that hemisphere specialization exists from birth onward and does not undergo further change in either its nature or degree. The apparent increase in the extent of hemisphere specialization during childhood is interpreted as an epiphenomenon of the increasing cognitive and behavioral repertoire of the child. Neural plasticity, assumed to underlie recovery of function, is seen as being coexistent with, but independent of, hemisphere specialization.     

Genetic influences in different aspects of language development: the etiology of language skills in 4.5-year-old twins

The genetic and environmental etiologies of diverse aspects of language ability and disability, including articulation, phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and verbal memory, were investigated in a U.K. sample of 787 pairs of 4.5-year-old same-sex and opposite-sex twins. Moderate genetic influence was found for all aspects of language in the normal range. A similar pattern was found at the low end of the distribution with the exception of two receptive measures. Environmental influence was mainly due to nonshared factors, unique to the individual, with little influence from shared environment for most measures. Genetic and environmental influences on language ability and disability are quantitatively and qualitatively similar for males and females.     

Analyzing language demands facing english learners on science performance assessments: The sald framework

This article report on the development and use of an analytical framework intended to map the language demands encountered by English learners as they engage in science performance assessments. Grounded in functional and interactional views of language and language use, the authors—two science education researchers and a language scholar—developed the framework via an inductive, iterative, and systematic review of written assessment materials associated with three fifth grade science performance tasks. The resulting Science Assessment Language Demands (SALD) framework is organized around three dimensions: participant structures, communicative modes, and written texts and genres that students are called upon to read and produce. The authors used textual analysis to conduct an expert review of the written documents associated with the three assessment tasks. The results indicate that the framework can be used to document a wide range of functional and interactional language demands involved in science performance assessments. The demands revealed by the SALD framework highlight both potential challenges facing English learners during science performance assessments as well as opportunities afforded by such assessments for demonstrating their knowledge and skills and further developing language proficiency. A major implication of the study is the potential use of the framework to evaluate the language demands and opportunities of science assessments used in classrooms with English learners. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47: 909–928, 2010     

Evaluating deaf students' readiness to meet the English language and literacy demands of postsecondary educational programs

The purpose of this study was to investigate alternative methods for evaluating deaf students' readiness to meet the English language and literacy demands of postsecondary educational programs. In the first part of the study, scores obtained by a large sample of deaf students on the ACT Assessment (ACT Composite score and scores on the ACT English and Reading tests) were compared to their scores on various measures of English language and literacy skills. In the second part of the study, the performance of a smaller sample of deaf students on the ESL Reading and ESL Grammar/Usage components of COMPASS/ESL was compared to their performance on a set of concurrent measures of English skills. The results of this investigation demonstrate that neither the ACT Assessment nor COMPASS/ESL are appropriate for the full range of deaf students seeking admission to postsecondary educational programs. However, the ACT Assessment is appropriate for deaf students seeking admission to transferable (BS and AAS) degree programs, and the ESL Reading and Grammar/Usage tests appear to be appropriate for deaf students seeking admission to nontransferable (AOS) degree programs. Taken together, the combination of the ACT Assessment and COMPASS/ESL appear able to provide a valid, reliable, and coherent approach to admissions screening assessment for the full range of deaf students seeking admission to postsecondary programs.     

Viability of construct validity of the speaking modules of international language examinations (IELTS vs. TOEFL iBT): evidence from Iranian test-takers

The aim of the present research is to examine the viability of the construct validity of the speaking modules of two internationally recognized language proficiency examinations, namely IELTS and TOEFL iBT. High-stake standardized tests play a crucial and decisive role in determining the future academic life of many people. Overall obtained scores of candidates are believed to reflect their general proficiency level. Appropriate interpretation and use of test scores depend on the extent to which items measuring a particular skill (here speaking) can meet the criteria to examine the intended construct. Speaking, amongst the other four skills, has a central place in assessing general proficiency of the candidates. This research seeks to scrutinize how IELTS and TOEFL iBT tap on the speaking proficiency of their candidates. Moreover, this study investigates whether obtained speaking scores of candidates in these two international high-stake tests show an acceptable degree of consistency in measuring the skill being examined. The chosen sample of the study consisted of 60 students who successfully completed TOEFL iBT and IELTS preparation courses in Tehran. The results of the statistical analysis show that there is a meaningful discrepancy between the two exams in assessing the speaking abilities of the exam-takers and therefore challenge the construct validity of the exams in question. Findings are then used to discuss the repercussions for language proficiency measurement and assessment.     

Sign language comprehension: the case of Spanish sign language

This study aims to answer the question, how much of Spanish Sign Language interpreting deaf individuals really understand. Study sampling included 36 deaf people (deafness ranging from severe to profound; variety depending on the age at which they learned sign language) and 36 hearing people who had good knowledge of sign language (most were interpreters). Sign language comprehension was assessed using passages of secondary level. After being exposed to the passages, the participants had to tell what they had understood about them, answer a set of related questions, and offer a title for the passage. Sign language comprehension by deaf participants was quite acceptable but not as good as that by hearing signers who, unlike deaf participants, were not only late learners of sign language as a second language but had also learned it through formal training.     

Automatization aspects of dyslexia: speed limitations in word identification, sensitivity to increasing task demands, and orthographic compensation

A study is presented in which three characteristics of dyslexia were examined: (a) speed limitations in word identification, (b) sensitivity to increasing task demands, and (c) orthographic compensation. Ten students with dyslexia (10 years old) were compared to 10 chronological-age controls and 20 reading-age controls on their performance in reading. Response latencies of the students with dyslexia were slower when familiar words, letter clusters, and nonwords had to be named. A larger word-frequency effect and a larger word-length effect in the these students indicates that they have difficulty with increasing task demands. In addition, a subword-frequency effect was found to be larger in the students with dyslexia. These differences among the three groups of students are interpreted in terms of automatization. Furthermore, it is suggested that students with dyslexia may have a preference for large orthographic units, which is used as a compensatory tool in reading.     

Some attitudinal aspects of foreign language learning in northern Ireland: Focus on gender and religious affiliation

Abstract

This paper discusses some aspects of foreign language learning within the divided school system of Northern Ireland. It is argued that an improvement of foreign language learning must be seen in a socio‐cultural context whereby a change in attitudes to languages in general, including Irish, may lead not only to a balanced interest among girls and boys in the language classroom, but also to a more tolerant approach to the cultural differences among the Catholic and Protestant communities.     

The language of written language: an introduction to the special issue

This special issue includes five articles dealing with selected aspects of writing disorders, crafted by key contributors to the literature on written language. Articles addressing definitional issues and diagnostic questions, assessment strategies, selected neurodevelopmental components of written expression, the manifestation of writing problems in children and young adults, direct intervention, training for elementary teachers in the early grades in the area of literacy, and brain-behavior linkages are presented. This introduction provides an overview of these articles tied to specific issues confronting the field of written language. Some thoughts and directions for the future are articulated.     

Remote electronic examinations: student experiences

This paper presents the findings from a small–scale experiment investigating the presentation of a synchronous remote electronic examination. It discusses the students' experiences of taking such an examination. The study confirms that the majority of participants found the experience at least as good as a conventional written examination. In addition, typing answers does not prevent students from producing answers in the time available. However, the pressure of time continues to be a major cause of anxiety for students. The paper discusses technical issues, particularly those related to the loss of communications during the 3–hour duration of the exam. Although software processes were available to save and restore students' answers throughout the examination, problems still occurred and more robust software is required.     

Judgement of the Teacher: the Norwood Report and internal examinations

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the intervention of the Norwood Report of 1943 in the debate over secondary school examinations. It emphasises the role of the report in supporting the active involvement of teachers in ‘internal’ examinations, as opposed to external examinations administered by examination boards. It relates this debate to its wider social and political contexts. It also suggests a longer‐term historical framework involving contestation between different interests and ideologies for control over examinations, the ‘professionalism’ of secondary school teachers in relation to their own sphere of activity, and notions such as ‘accountability’ and the ‘market’. The contribution of this historical episode to a ‘social history of education policy’ relevant to unresolved issues and tensions of the 1990s is also discussed.     

School reform and the emotional demands of principals: Lorna's story

The issue of emotions in school leadership is one that has received increasing attention in recent years. In this paper we present a case study of the emotional demands upon one principal as she undertakes a programme of school reform. This case study works against the common discourse of ‘emotional maturity’ inherent in an individual that is prevalent in leadership standards and literatures and shows how this principal's emotional work is constructed within the political frameworks of schools. This principal was both normalised into traditional ways of being a school principal and also sought to resist such normalisations. This paper provides an important contribution to understanding the ways that women leaders are negotiating the emotional terrain of enacting change and reform in their schools.     

A case for written examinations in undergraduate medical education: experiences with modified essay examinations

Abstract

A modified essay is an open-ended question about clinical presentations, with the goal to test application of basic science principles to novel scenarios. Due to high reliability and validity, multiple-choice question (MCQ) examinations are more commonly used. We have employed a combination of MCQ and modified essay examinations in medical school. The correlation between MCQ and modified essay grades is positive but small, suggesting they may be testing different cognitive levels/skills. In this paper, we evaluate the impact of a non-graded mock modified essay on student’s performance and satisfaction, and outline our best practices. We have found that it is important to involve faculty from multiple disciplines to construct robust cases, and to review examinations and rubrics. The mock modified essay resulted in higher performance and student satisfaction, and fewer students’ comments related to subjectivity, frustration and anxiety. Yet, there was not an improvement in confidence. Moreover, there was no correlation between grades in the mock and graded modified essays, suggesting that the mock modified essay may not be useful to predict academic performance. Yet, the incorporation of a mock modified essay was useful to clarify expectations and provide guidance, potentially reducing the anxiety induced by an unfamiliar assessment.