Non‐Verbal Communication,Self‐esteem and Interpersonal Relations of LD and Non‐LD Students

Accurate perception and comprehension of verbal and non‐verbal communication is important in one's interpersonal environment; such understanding may affect not only the child's academic achievement but how he/she relates to and is perceived by others. In the present study learning disabled (LD) and non‐learning disabled (NLD) middle school students were evaluated on their ability to perceive and accurately comprehend non‐verbal communication; they also responded to an interpersonal relations scale and a self‐esteem inventory. LD children differed from regular class students both in reported self‐esteem and in the ability to perceive and comprehend “wordless” communication, but similarities were noted between the two groups in reported need for interpersonal relations.     

A homogeneous group of persons with learning disabilities: adults with severe learning disabilities in vocational rehabilitation

The results of a comprehensive psychoeducational assessment of adults having learning disabilities (LD) and participating in vocational rehabilitation are presented. The subjects were found to have low-average general intelligence; lower verbal than performance IQs; attention, reasoning, and auditory memory deficits; academic achievement at the fourth-/fifth-grade level; language problems; and low self-esteem. These results were contrasted with other studies of adults with LD in vocational rehabilitation, and all studies on this population reported similar findings. A comparison of studies of adults with LD who were clients of vocational rehabilitation with those in college or employed and with those who had been labeled as learning disabled in childhood indicated that the adults with LD in vocational rehabilitation seem to constitute a homogeneous group of persons with severe deficits. The need to subtype learning disabilities by severity and criteria for making such determinations are proposed.     

The “learning disabilities” label: An experimental analysis

The “learning disability” label is a relatively new addition to the field of special education and its effects have begun to be investigated. This study examined the differences produced by two categorical labels on students impressions of the “disturbingness” of behavior and their willingness to work with the labeled child. Aggressive behaviors thought to be exhibited by learning disabled youngsters were rated differently from identical behaviors thought to be exhibited by emotionally disturbed children. Implications of this study suggest that the “LD” label may connote a milder form of disability; and that teacher and professional training institutions should consider the deleterious effects labels may convey with regard to expected behaviors.     

Cognitive functioning in learning-disabled and nonlearning-disabled secondary level students

A study was conducted to compare on a number of specialized cognitive procedures the performance of high school students designated as learning disabled (LD) with the performance of nonlearning-disabled students experiencing learning difficulties (nonLD). Both groups were then compared with a control group of typical learners. Results indicate that when taken as a group LD and nonLD students differed significantly from a control group of typical learners on 6 of 16 variables. LD students differed from nonLD students with learning difficulties on 5 of 16 variables. The performance of LD and nonLD students with learning difficulties indicates patterns of cognitive functioning that differ from those of typical learners. The possibility of the development of compensatory cognitive styles in LD and nonLD students and their implications are discussed.     

Patterns of performance on the Stroop Color and Word Test in children with learning,attentional, and psychiatric disabilities

The study presented here investigated the performance of children with learning, psychiatric, and attentional disabilities on the Stroop Color and Word Test. Forty‐three children diagnosed with a full battery of tests as learning disabled (LD [reading]) in grades K through 6 were matched on age, gender, ethnicity, and grade with 43 normal controls. They were also matched with groups of 43 children with psychiatric disorders and 43 children with attentional problems. All subjects were given the Stroop test, which took about 4 minutes per subject. The results indicated clear differences between the groups, with the LD and the psychiatric/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) groups generating unique profiles different from the normal controls. The children with LD showed slower reading speed and less interference, while the subjects with ADHD and diagnoses showed impairment only on the Color‐Word score. A discriminant analysis using the three basic Stroop scales was able to significantly differentiate the LD group from the non–learning‐disabled (NLD) group (89%) and the LD group from a joint Psychiatric/ADHD group (86%). However, results were poorer for differentiating a joint LD/ADHD group from the NLD group (68%) and the LD from the ADHD group (59%). © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Interjudge agreement in classifying students as learning disabled

Eighteen judges with backgrounds in assessment, decision making, and learning disabilities were asked to use an array of information to differentiate learning disabled and nonlearning disabled students. Each judge was provided with forms containing information on 42 test or subtest scores of 50 school-identified LD students and 49 non-LD students. Judges were extremely inaccurate in their classifications and in little agreement with each other. Also, it appeared that different judges emphasized different factors when making their decisions. The results suggest that, given current definitions of the condition called “learning disabilities,” there is considerable doubt that school personnel can accurately and reliably identify such students.     

Impact of instruction on behavior disordered and learning disabled students' creative behavior

Ninety-eight pupils from intermediate-level behavior disordered and learning disabled self-contained classrooms served as subjects. The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking were used as pretests and posttests to measure the effect of creativity instruction on the creative thinking skills of the subjects. For 14 weeks the Purdue Creative Thinking Program was used to stimulate the behaviorally disordered (BD) and learning disabled (LD) experimental group's creative behavior. Subjects in the BD and LD experimental group made significantly greater scores than did the control groups on the verbal and figural subtests of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.     

Distinguishing and Improving Mouse Behavior With Educational Computer Games in Young Children With Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: An Executive Function‐Based Interpretation

In this exploratory multiple case study, it is examined how a computer game focused on improving ineffective learning behavior can be used as a tool to assess, improve, and study real‐time mouse behavior (MB) in different types of children: 18 children (3.8–6.3 years) with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), or comorbid ASD and ADHD, and 5 effectively learning (EL) children (3.5–3.8 years). The children's MB processes, for example “Errors” and “Reaction times,” were interpreted in terms of executive functions (EFs). Trajectories of averaged MB were compared among the groups of ASD, ADHD, comorbid, and EL children. Clinical groups showed differences in their MB, which were similar to the expected differences based on EF tests. In addition, a case study of a typical ASD, ADHD, and EL child was included in order to demonstrate typical individual MB patterns across time. MB processes might therefore provide a window into the processes of EF (dys)functioning.     

Cognitive Arithmetic Differences in Learning Difficulty Groups and the Role of Behavioral Inattention

The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate group differences in specific arithmetic competencies among students with various types of learning difficulties (LD) and (2) to examine the influence of attention behaviors on possible group differences. Participants were a community sample of 291 third‐ and fourth‐grade students with reading difficulties (RD) and/or math difficulties (MD), or with no LD (51 MD, 66 RD, 89 MD + RD, and 85 No LD students). Students were administered computerized measures of cognitive addition, subtraction, and estimation (accuracy and response times), as well as other measures. Groups were compared with and without covariation for behavioral inattention and their interactions. Small sums addition, thought to reflect retrieval processes, estimation accuracy, and number knowledge, did not show differences between MD and MD + RD students, although both showed lower performance than the RD and No LD groups. Attention behavior had a variable impact, most typically making group differences larger, but did not alter the general pattern of group differences, except in the case of estimation.     

Memory modality differences in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder with and without learning disabilities

This study assesses information processing and memory functioning in 50 children diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) with and without learning disabilities (LD). Mode of presentation (visual vs. auditory), type of memory processing (immediate, short-term, and long-term), and order of recall (ordered vs. unordered) were assessed using the Learning Efficiency Test-II (LET-II). Both groups demonstrated difficulty with auditory ordered recall and lost substantial information from immediate memory to short-term and long-term memory stores. The ADHD/LD group also demonstrated more difficulty with ordered recall than the ADHD only group. While there were no differences between the two groups in regard to immediate recall, the ADHD/LD group demonstrated more problems transferring information into short-term and long-term memory stores than the ADHD only group. Verbal interference effects significantly decreased retention for both visual and auditory processing. Results indicate that ADHD alone presents significant problems in information processing, but the comorbid effects of a learning disability further intensify the negative impact of ADHD. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Trends and issues in multimedia learning research in 1996–2016: A bibliometric analysis

Parallel to the recent advancements in information and communications technologies, research on multimedia learning has generated a number of theories and empirical findings. Numerous trends and issues have emerged, showing the complex and dynamic nature of multimedia learning and the associated scholarship. To provide a comprehensive knowledge map and an overview of recent research on multimedia learning, 411 peer-reviewed articles from 1996 to 2016 were analyzed to describe the empirical work in multimedia learning. A bibliometric approach was applied to reveal the most common keywords and terms and their interactions via co-word analysis. The results showed that cognitive load is the highest co-occurred keyword and that animation provided the highest number of co-occurrence relationships with other keywords in our sample. Five clusters of research trends were identified: theoretical foundations of multimedia learning, representations and principles, instructional design and individual differences, motivation and metacognition, and video and hypermedia. Despite the high co-occurrence of the terms “memory”, “working memory”, and “cognitive load”, only a few studies examined the role of individual differences in cognition such as working memory capacity in multimedia learning. The multimedia learning principles most commonly discussed in the last two decades of research are redundancy, contiguity, and coherence. Thus, more research should be conducted to empirically test the many other principles recently discussed in the Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning and address the issue of individual differences in attention and cognition during learning with multimedia.     

Helping Teachers Formulate Sound Test Accommodation Decisions for Students with Learning Disabilities

This paper introduces a data-based approach as an alternative way to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for students with LD. Three rationales for the approach are provided: (a) an inadequate research base to guide decision-making; (b) the heterogeneity of the LD population; and (c) problems with teachers' use of subjective judgment. Well-controlled studies on test accommodations are too scarce to draw firm conclusions about effects for the group of students labeled learning disabled (LD). Moreover, in light of the heterogeneity of learning disabilities, the individual, rather than the LD label, may be the more appropriate unit for deciding which test accommodations preserve the validity of test scores for students with LD. In this paper, we provide a rationale for a data-based approach to help teachers formulate decisions about the validity of test accommodations for individual students with LD. Then we describe an objective assessment process teachers may use in determining valid test accommodations. We conclude with recommendations for practitioners.     

An analysis of WISC-R factors for gifted students with learning disabilities

Intellectual patterns of gifted students with learning disabilities were studied to determine cognitive factors characterizing these children. Twenty-four gifted children with learning disabilities (LD) and a control group of nondisabled gifted children were administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) (Wechsler, 1974). While differences between the two groups on individual subtests were examined, a comparison of broader factors was emphasized in discovering cognitive patterns that might suggest effective intervention. Experimental and control performances were compared on 14 factor scores, using cognitive classification systems of Bannatyne (1971), Kaufman (1975), Rapaport, Gill, and Schafer (1946), and Wechsler (1974). Gifted students with LD were more reliant on verbal conceptualization and reasoning than the control students. They also demonstrated deficiencies in short-term auditory memory and sound discrimination. The gifted group with LD exhibited the Organic Brain Syndrome factor (Wechsler, 1974) to a significantly greater extent than did the control group.     

Applying the Mastery Learning Model to Sight Word Instruction for Disabled Readers

The present study evaluated the effect of applying a mastery learning model to sight word instruction for learning disabled (LD), elementary school children. A total of 48 LD children were taught 30 sight words in 9 lessons which incorporated mastery learning strategies, and a comparison group (W = 16) with methods that are typically used in the teaching of sight words. While all children could read less than 10% of the words on the pretest, the experimental group achieved over 90% accuracy on the posttest. This was higher than the average posttest performance of the comparison group (72% accuracy). Results of this investigation suggest that a majority of LD children can reach mastery on sight words within a reasonable time framework if sound remedial principles are applied consistently. The procedures described in this paper can serve both as a model of effective sight word instruction and as a diagnostic, trial-remediation technique for a disabled population.     

The effects of cooperative learning and feedback on e-learning in statistics

This study examined whether cooperative learning and feedback facilitate situated, example-based e-learning in the field of statistics. The factors “social context” (individual vs. cooperative) and “feedback intervention” (available vs. not available) were varied; participants were 137 university students. Results showed that the feedback intervention clearly supported learning. Feedback proved especially beneficial for students with little prior knowledge. Cooperation did not promote learning outcomes; however, group performance in the learning phase was superior to individual performance. Also, cooperative learning enhanced perceived performance and perceived competence. Probably, collective efficacy had a halo effect on self-efficacy.     

Cognitive functioning as measured by the WISC-R: do children with learning disabilities have distinctive patterns of performance?

Patterns of performance on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) have been proposed as useful tools for the identification of children with learning disabilities (LD). However, most of the studies of WISC-R patterns in children with LD have been plagued by the lack of a typically achieving comparison group, by failure to measure individual patterns, and by the lack of a precise definition of LD. In an attempt to address these flaws and to assess the presence of patterns of performance on the WISC-R, we examined data from 121 children with typical achievement (TA), 143 children with reading disabilities (RD), and 100 children with a specific arithmetic disability (AD), ages 6 to 16 years. The results indicated that the RD and AD groups had significantly lower scores than the TA group on all the Verbal IQ subtests. Many of the children with AD and RD showed a significant difference between Verbal and Performance IQ scores, but so did many of the typically achieving children. Although there were some children with LD who showed the predicted patterns, typically, 65% or more of the children with LD did not. Furthermore, a proportion of the TA group-generally not significantly smaller than that of the RD and AD groups-showed discrepancy patterns as well. Our results indicate that the patterns of performance on intelligence tests are not reliable enough for the diagnosis of LD in individual children. Therefore, it might be more profitable to base the detection of an individual's LD on patterns of achievement test scores.     

在线协作讨论中成员表现的综合评价研究

目前随着网络技术的发展和教学观念的变革,网络环境下的协作学习越来越受到重视,相应地其评价问题也日益突出。协作学习过程评价是协作学习评价的重点。本文提出由“互动”、“争辩”和“建构”作为评价准则、十三类交互言行作为评价指标的评价模型,并引入基于AHP的综合评价方法,对小组成员个人贡献进行量化分析。实验结果表明,该评价模型为辅助评价小组成员提供了更有价值的参考依据。     

Gender differences in cognitive abilities of learning-disabled females and males

Gender differences in level and pattern of cognitive abilities were examined in 28 LD college-able females (CA 18–25) as compared to 21 LD college-able males (CA 18–25). Both groups were in the average IQ range as measured by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, with LD males significantly higher on the Full Scale IQ and three out of the four subtests, Picture Completion, Block Design, and Information. The LD females performed significantly better on the Digit Symbol subtest. The hierarchies of subtest performance and Bannatyne and ACID category scores were compared. LD females have strengths in visual-motor abilities and verbal conceptualization, while the LD males’ highest abilities were nonverbal visual-spatial confirming earlier studies on younger LD individuals and non-LD males and females. Performance on the Digit Symbol subtest was the next to the lowest for the males, the highest for females. However, for both groups, short-term and long-term memory for digits and factual knowledge and mental arithmetic problem solving were relative weaknesses. Results indicate different patterns of cognitive abilities in LD females and males which have implications for identification, service, and prognosis for the learning disabled, especially females.     

Use of the WISC-R with a learning disabled population: Some diagnostic implications

A group of 41 learning disabled children in Hawaii, aged 6 to 151/2, were tested on the WISC-R. Two main questions were explored: (a) Do the separate WISC-R tests assess “g” for learning disabled children to the same degree that they do for normal children? (b) Is there significantly more scatter among the tests for learning disabled than for normal youngsters? The answers to these questions were interpreted in terms of their diagnostic significance.     

Teacher interpersonal behavior and adolescents’ motivation in mathematics: A comparison of learning disabled,average, and talented students

This study examined student perceptions of teacher behavior in three motivational variables (self-efficacy beliefs, intrinsic value, and test anxiety in mathematics) for adolescents enrolled in three distinct schooling tracks. Questionnaires were administered to 111 learning disabled (LD), 224 average (AV) and 258 talented students (TA). Some differences among groups were found on students’ perceptions of teacher behavior as measured by the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction, and on motivational beliefs assessed by the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Overall, the results show that perceptions of teacher proximity and influence have implications for AV and TA motivation, but are not significant in students with learning disabilities. The findings are discussed with special attention given to LD and TA.