Approaches to studying in higher education Portuguese students: a Portuguese version of the approaches and study skills inventory for students

This paper examines the validity of the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students—short version (ASSIST; Tait et al. in Improving student learning: Improving students as learners, 1998), to be used with Portuguese undergraduate students. The ASSIST was administrated to 566 students, in order to analyse a Portuguese version of this inventory. Exploratory factor analysis (principal axis factor analysis followed by direct oblimin rotation) reproduced the three main factors that correspond to the original dimensions of the inventory (deep, surface apathetic and strategic approaches to learning). The results are consistent with the background theory on approaches to learning. Additionally, the reliability analysis revealed acceptable internal consistency indexes for the main scales and subscales. This inventory might represent a valuable research tool for the assessment of approaches to learning among Portuguese higher education students.     

The Relationship between Students' Course Perception and their Approaches to Studying in Undergraduate Science Courses: A Canadian experience

Research on students' approaches to learning in higher education has consistently demonstrated strong relationships between approaches to studying and perceptions of the learning environment. The vast majority of these studies have been carried out with Australian and British students. Using the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) and the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), this study investigated these relationships with a large sample of Canadian undergraduates. The factor structure of the ASSIST was confirmed at the main scale level. The factor structure of the CEQ was largely confirmed, though some small changes were noted. Previous findings of significant correlations between approaches and CEQ scales were supported. The strongest relationships were found between heavy workload/inappropriate assessment and surface approach, and between generic skills and deep approach. Consistent with other studies, age was found to be a significant variable with regard to approaches. Implications for the practice of higher education staff development are discussed.     

Patterns of response to an approaches to studying inventory across contrasting groups and contexts

The development of the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) is reported, which incorporates a revised version of the Approaches to Studying Inventory. This questionnaire was completed by three separate samples; 1284 mainly first-year students from six British universities, 466 first-year students from a Scottish technological university; and 219 students from a ‘historically disadvantaged” South African university. Analyses of these data were designed to explore the patterns of response found in sub-groups which varied in terms of their levels of attainment and contexts. Maximum likelihood analysis of the largest sample confirmed the expected three factors of deep, surface apathetic, and strategic approaches to studying, and almost identical patterns were also found in the other two samples, and in students having contrasting levels of attainment. There were, however, some interesting minor differences in the South African sample. K-means relocation cluster analysis was then carried out on the largest sample and produced clusters with generally coherent patterns of response. However, one persistent low attainment cluster showed unexpected, dissonant patterns of response, combining moderately high scores on the sub-scales of both deep and surface apathetic approaches, associated with low scores on the strategic approach.     

Exploring the influence of course elements and emotional connection to content on students’ approaches to learning in an introductory food science and human nutrition course

Researchers have identified three approaches to learning—surface, strategic, and deep. These approaches are influenced by various contextual and student factors, including teaching methods, assessments, and relevance to future career. The global objective of this study was to explore the influence of course elements and students’ emotional connection to section content on students’ approaches to learning in an introductory Food Science and Human Nutrition course. Students completed two questionnaires for the Nutrition and Health (NH) and Composition and Chemistry (CC) course sections: (a) Entwistle's ASSIST Inventory and (b) a questionnaire developed to assess students’ perceived usefulness of assignments, learning resources, and emotional connection to section content. Students’ approaches to learning did not significantly differ between NH and CC sections, with the majority reporting use of strategic or deep approaches. Generally, positive correlations were obtained for learners who used the deep and strategic approaches and their perceived usefulness of assignments and learning resources. In stark contrast, negative correlations were identified for learners who used the surface approach and their perceived usefulness of learning resources and assignments. Regarding emotional connection to section content, compared to learners who used the deep and strategic approaches, learners who used the surface approach did not enjoy and felt anxious about learning the content in both sections. Furthermore, based on regression analysis, the surface learning approach was a predictor for low exam scores in both sections. Based on these findings, instructors should implement practices in course design, instructional methods, and assessment strategies that help students choose deep and strategic approaches to learning, while minimizing surface approaches.     

The impact of curriculum change on health sciences first year students’ approaches to learning

This study aimed to use a learning inventory (the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students, ASSIST) to measure the impact of a curriculum change on students’ approaches to learning in two large courses in a health sciences first year programme. The two new Human Body Systems (HUBS) courses were designed to encourage students to take a deep approach to learning. ASSIST was completed by 599 students enrolled in a biology class in 2006 that was part of the old curriculum, and by 705 students at the beginning and end of the new HUBS courses in 2007. Changes in students’ approaches to learning over time were examined. The ASSIST scores for both HUBS courses reflected the dominance of a surface approach, followed by a strategic and then a deep approach. However, by the end of the year, students were taking a deep and strategic approach to their studies to a greater extent, and a surface approach to a lesser extent. Moreover, students enrolled in the new course adopted a deep approach to their studies to a significantly greater degree than those studying the old curriculum. Despite the predominance of a surface approach, the results suggest that it is possible to bring about small but significant positive changes in students’ learning behaviour in a very large class through curriculum change. The proportion of students preferring a surface approach, and results showing that high performance on the final exam was significantly correlated with a surface approach, probably reflected contextual factors, including assessment, and is the focus of ongoing curriculum development.     

First-semester students’ capacity to predict academic achievement as related to approaches to learning

ABSTRACT

Students’ ways of approaching their studies influence their academic outcomes. Expecting high grades and having the skills to steer learning activities towards assessment demands seem to be important components of academic success. However, our knowledge about students’ capacity to predict academic achievement is limited. Focusing on first-semester psychology students, this study aimed to investigate (a) students’ self-assessment skills, and (b) how approaches to learning were related to self-assessment skills, and to expected and final academic outcomes. Data from two sources were analysed: (1) students’ (N = 189) responses to the 52-item version of the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) questionnaire and their assessment expectations and (2) final course grades that were retrieved from official university records. Results showed that 18 per cent of the students provided perfect ratings of their final grades while most underestimated their grades. Students reporting the best self-assessment skills expected high grades, but achieved low grades, and reported a low surface approach. Students with a low surface and a high strategic approach both expected and achieved high grades. Students with a deep approach expected high grades but did not perform as expected. Taken together, students new to a discipline seem to have difficulties estimating their grades. Variations between approaches probably relate to the discipline being new and to circumstances characterising the local educational setting, such as the examination favouring a strategic approach. Practical implications involve carefully considering how assessments may steer student approaches and learning outcomes.     

Dispositional flow as a mediator of the relationships between attentional control and approaches to studying during academic examination preparation

This study investigated how attentional control and study‐related dispositional flow influence students' approaches to studying when preparing for academic examinations. Based on information‐processing theories, it was hypothesised that attentional control would be positively associated with deep and strategic approaches to studying, and negatively associated with surface approach to studying. Based on flow theory, it was hypothesised that flow would partially mediate the relationships between attentional control and approaches to studying. A sample of 237 university students completed the Attentional Control Scale (ACS), the Dispositional Flow Scale‐2 (DFS‐2), the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) and the Evaluation Anxiety Scale (EVAN) one week before examinations. Multiple regressions supported all the hypothesised relationships. The implications of these findings are outlined.     

The Relationship Between Learning Approaches to Part‐Time Study of Management Courses and Transfer of Learning to the Workplace

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between students’ learning approaches to study on part‐time, distance‐learning management courses, and transfer of their learning to the workplace. The relationship between these two variables has rarely been considered before, as they emanate from research areas that have remained distinct. Three learning approaches are identified by ASSIST, the instrument used in this study: the deep approach, the strategic approach, and the surface‐apathetic approach. Transfer of learning was measured by student self‐report. The deep approach was closely related to transfer of learning from the course to the workplace but strategic and surface‐apathetic approaches did not show a significant association. Contrary to expectations, academic grades also showed no significant association with transfer of learning. The findings are discussed in relation to cognitive changes proposed to occur during transfer of learning.     

HOMEWORK MANAGEMENT SCALE: CONFIRMING THE FACTOR STRUCTURE WITH MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS IN CHINA

This study presents a psychometric evaluation of the Homework Management Scale (HMS) for mathematics, consisting of five subscales for measuring ' homework management strategies. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted with a sample of middle school students (N = 796). Results indicated that the factor structure of the Chinese version of the HMS for mathematics was consistent with the original one developed in the United States. Furthermore, the HMS and its subscales were correlated with related measures (i.e., homework purpose, homework behaviors, and learning strategies) in the theoretically expected directions. These findings suggest that Chinese version of the HMS is a valid multidimensional measure for mathematics homework at the middle school level. In addition, these findings strengthen the validity of the HMS, as China and United States represent two countries in East and West that differ with regard to their education system in general, and with homework practices in particular.     

The Revised Two-Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F): Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses at item level

The underlying structure of the Revised Two factor version of the Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F), a 20-item instrument for the evaluation of students’ approaches to learning (SAL), was examined at item level using two independent groups of undergraduate students enrolled in the first (n=314) and last (n=522) years of their studies. The methods used were (a) Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) assisted by rigorous procedures such as Velicer’s MAP test, parallel analysis and the Schmid Leiman solution with the first sample; and (b) confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with the second sample. The results of EFA indicated that the latent structure of the R-SPQ-2F is best described by two factors and the results of CFA suggested that out of four a priori structural models, the best fit was achieved by a simple first-order two-factor model. Taken together, these results seemed to converge, suggesting (a) that SAL might be defined as a co-variation between a motive and its intended strategy, these not necessarily being divided into separate first-order factors (subscales), and (b) that the underlying structure of the R-SPQ-2F is apparently non-hierarchical, being best described by a parsimonious first-order two-factor model in which Deep and Surface learning approaches are each measured by their ten corresponding items.     

Gender neutrality improved completion rate for all

The purpose of the present study was to investigate if we could improve retention by redesigning an online programming course from a gender perspective, while maintaining the focus on preferable and sustainable learning approaches. The study builds on results from an earlier study that investigated the relationship between approaches to learning and course completion and involves 1067 students that responded to the short version of the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) in 2010, 2012 and 2013. Three principles for course material design were identified; gender neutral and non-biased messages, emphasize the interdisciplinary approach and link to everyday examples. Responses to ASSIST were analysed in relation to performed changes in the course literature from a gender perspective. The probability to complete the course increased with 7% points for all students, in particular for men, and decreased for students with a high score in surface approach to learning, especially among women.     

Testing two path models to explore relationships between students’ experiences of the teaching–learning environment,approaches to learning and academic achievement

The study explores the relationships between students’ experiences of the teaching–learning environment and their approaches to learning, and the effects of these variables on academic achievement. Two three-stage models were tested with structural equation modelling techniques. The Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) and the Experiences of Teaching and Learning Questionnaire (ETLQ) were used to assess approaches to learning and student’s experiences of the teaching–learning environment, respectively. These two constructs were then used as either first- or second-stage variables within the path analysis. The model using approaches to learning as a mediating variable showed the best fit with our data; variations in our students’ experiences of the teaching–learning environment appear to give rise to their approaches to studying, which subsequently affect their achievement. The deep approach shows no detectable influence on academic achievement in this sample, neither there are any direct effects of experiences of the teaching–learning environment on it. The indirect effects of these experiences on achievement, acting through the strategic and the surface approaches, are related to two aspects of the teaching–learning environment only, namely congruence and coherence in course organisation, and integrative learning and critical thinking. The finding of a reciprocal relation between approaches to learning and experiences of the teaching–learning environment supports previous conclusions about the association between these constructs. The indirect effect of experiences of the teaching–learning environment on achievement, acting through approaches to learning, shows those approaches as a dynamic construct that varies in line with experiences of the teaching-learning environment, and so influences achievement.     

Cross-validation of the Norwegian Teacher's Self-Efficacy Scale (NTSES)

The study assesses the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale – NTSES. Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis was used to explore the measurement invariance of the scale across two countries. Analyses performed on Italian and Norwegian samples confirmed a six-factor structure of the scale with a strong factorial invariance. The analyses conducted on the Italian sample supported good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The Italian version of the NTSES showed expected correlations with measures of job-related well-being. These results confirm the good psychometric properties of the Italian version of the NTSES.     

Linkages between approaches to learning,perceived stress and expected and actual academic outcomes among first-semester psychology students

Previous research indicates that higher educational students’ perceptions of stress are in part related to the teaching and learning context, and influence academic outcomes. This study intends to deepen our understanding of these processes by examining the linkages between approaches to learning, perceived stress and expected and actual academic outcomes within a specific educational setting. First-semester psychology students (N = 191) completed a questionnaire, including short versions of ASSIST and PSS, and estimated their course grade before a written examination. Later, actual grades were added. The results suggest that surface approach to learning is positively associated with high levels of perceived stress, and reflected in lower levels of expected grades. The relationships between deep and strategic approaches to learning and perceived stress seem to be more ambivalent, despite positive associations with expected grades. Coping and motivational aspects of the concepts of surface and strategic approaches to learning seem to be crucial to understanding the linkages between the examined factors. Also, the significance of a strategic approach in relation to actual academic outcomes is highlighted.     

Construct validity of the learning behavior scale with an independent sample of students

In this study, the factor structure of the Learning Behavior Scale (LBS; McDermott, Green, Francis, & Stott, 1999) was examined in an independent sample of 257 elementary school students. The LBS is a 29‐item, four‐factor scale on which teachers rate students' positive and negative learning behaviors. The results indicated that the internal consistency of the total LBS scores and the scores on two subscales (Competence Motivation and Attitude Toward Learning) were high enough for individual decision making, whereas the reliability estimates of scores on the Attention/Persistence and Strategy/Flexibility subscales were appropriate only for research or screening purposes. Factor analyses extracted factors similar to three of the factors on the LBS (Competence Motivation, Attitude Toward Learning, and Strategy/Flexibility), and suggested that the fourth factor (Attention/Persistence) may benefit from additional study. In general, the results indicate that the LBS may be a useful tool for examining students' learning behaviors. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

University students’ learning approaches: An adaptation of the revised two-factor study process questionnaire to Norwegian

This paper reports a Norwegian validation study of a widely used instrument to measure students’ approaches to learning, namely, Bigg’s revised two-factor study process questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). Its cultural sensitivity and psychometry evaluations have provoked rigorous discussion among educators in different languages. A survey design was adopted involving 253 undergraduate engineering students across two universities. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to test six models hypothesized to reflect the factor structures of R-SPQ-2F and unidimensionality of its subscales. The results showed appropriate fits of a two-factor first-order model with 10 items measuring deep approach and 9 items measuring surface approach subscales. The reliability was found to be high with coefficients of .81, .72 and .63 on deep subscale, surface subscale and the whole instrument respectively. Findings may be interpreted as evidence of cultural sensitivity of the instrument and more validation studies were recommended.     

Do Students’ Approaches to Learning Affect their Perceptions of Using Computing and Information Technology?

Communication and Information Technology (C&IT) has become a key part of the teaching and learning strategy in UK Higher Education, although the level of usage is still variable across courses and institutions. As members of the Assisting Small‐group Teaching through Electronic Resources (ASTER) project team we were interested in the value of C&IT as a teaching tool. One of the aspects we looked at was student perception of using C&IT for a Virtual Seminar series in Psychology. Our research aimed to identify student learning approaches within the group and how this affected their adoption or rejection of the electronic medium. This research study involved Second Year Psychology degree level students completing a core module on biological and cognitive psychology. The module included ten seminar sessions, of which five were face‐to‐face and five used computer‐mediated communication through an Intranet Web board. The students completed the short ‘Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students’ (ASSIST) developed by Tait and Entwistle (1996). Our findings indicate only weak correlations between deep, strategic and surface approaches to learning and perception of C&IT at an overall level. However, individual measures of the deep, strategic and surface approaches to learning indicate potentially interesting relationships, and we offer suggestions on how these may assist in the design of computer‐mediated learning.     

Construction and validation of a Chinese SRL-based reading instruction questionnaire

The purpose of the study is to construct and validate a Chinese self-regulated learning (SRL)-based reading instruction questionnaire (CSRIQ) and to examine the relationship between Chinese reading instruction and Hong Kong students' reading development from the SRL perspective. A total of 339 Grade 10 students completed the initial CSRIQ in Study 1. Exploratory factor analysis and reliability analyses were used to assess the psychometric quality of the questionnaire, and the original CSRIQ subscales were then revised. Study 2 comprised 1,121 Grade 10 students. The factor structure of the revised CSRIQ was supported by the findings of confirmatory factor analysis. The findings of structural equation modelling indicated significant relations between SRL-based instruction and various reading-related variables. Among the four aspects of instruction, teacher support was the most positive factor facilitating Chinese students' reading development, whereas student autonomy seemed less favourable. Cultural and curricula factors affecting Chinese reading instruction in Hong Kong were discussed.     

The Influence of a Period of Environment-orientated Work Experience on Students' Perception of their Learning Style

A period of circa 12 months' work experience, as part of an Environmental Science Bachelor's Degree programme, introduces candidates to a variety of problems and can, therefore, be expected to influence the problem-solving approach adopted by the students. An index of deep learning, based on data collected from a modified version of the ASSIST questionnaire, indicated that students maintained their level of deep learning throughout the 4 years of a thick sandwich undergraduate environmental science degree programme. However, data from interviews with students indicated their experience of environment-orientated work placement had led them towards adopting a deeper approach to learning. The apparent contradiction in data may be explained by the type of problem to be solved. It is likely that students retain a surface approach to solving technical, scientific problems whilst adopting a deeper approach to, for example, personnel and resource problems.     

The Greek elementary “What Is Happening In this Class?” (G-EWIHIC): A three-phase multi-sample mixed-methods study

Students’ perceptions of their classroom psycho-social climate (CPSC) have been found to relate significantly to students’ learning outcomes. The What Is Happening In this Class? (WIHIC) being one of most prominent instruments in measuring these perceptions. The purpose of the present study was to thoroughly examine the structure of preadolescents’ perceptions of the CPSC, through an elaborate mixed-methods three-phase design, in the Greek elementary school context. The study included semi-structured interviews with students and teachers, and two large-scale administrations of the qualitatively adapted WIHIC version. Both qualitative and quantitative results supported the seven-subscale structure of the instrument and identified potential issues with the conceptual content of two of the subscales. Quantitative findings also supported the theoretical second-order factorial structure of the instrument, but with different subscale allocation. The advantages of mixed-methodology in the cross-cultural examination of student’s perceptions of the learning environment and implications for research are discussed.