Causal Inferences in the Campbellian Validity System

The purpose of the present paper is to critically examine causal inferences and internal validity as defined by Campbell and co‐workers. Several arguments are given against their counterfactual effect definition, and this effect definition should be considered inadequate for causal research in general. Moreover, their defined independence between internal and construct validity is not meaningful. An alternative causal inference and its validity are proposed, where the causal effect is defined in factual terms, and where the causal inference includes constructs.     

一种旧的新逻辑:实质归纳理论

诺顿在古德曼和亨普尔等人的启发下,结合他的科学哲学研究背景,提出一种不同于他所定义的“形式归纳理论”的“实质归纳理论”,强调归纳的局部应用性,拒斥普遍的归纳推理模式。归纳推理的基础往往建立在具体领域的事实之上,因此所有的归纳推理都是局部的。诺顿认为归纳推理模式是由事实授权的,我们可以通过考察这些事实的可靠性来评估归纳风险。同时实质归纳理论不再区分归纳的事实部分和模式部分,所以不易受休谟问题的影响。但我们发现,诺顿的归纳辩护面临着亟待解决的问题,其理论也遭受多方面的批评。实质归纳理论是归纳逻辑领域的前沿性成果,引起了逻辑学界和科学哲学界的广泛关注,一定程度上体现了归纳逻辑的强劲生命力和广阔的发展前景。     

科学哲学及其实在论本质的先验分析

科学哲学以及相关的自然科学在本质上是关于实在的知识。但这一结论本身只有在先验的视域中才能显示出清晰的含义,一般关于实在论的讨论也只有在先验视域中才能有逻辑的结果。然而在这一视域中的考察也表明,科学哲学的“超验性”问题又是与其实在本质直接相关的,先验哲学在研究其发生发展规律的同时又承认这一点。整个20世纪科学哲学进程都表明了一个科学的经验实在（论）的性质,同时这一进程也证实了先验哲学关于先天知识（先验逻辑）的普遍有效性的论述。     

Language as an indicator of meaning generation: An analysis of middle school students' written discourse about scientific investigations

The purposes of this study were to (a) investigate how one group of middle school students generated meanings for scientific data and expressed them in writing, and (b) develop a methodology for assessing the relationship between students' written text and their scientific thinking. Previous research on writing to learn has focused on the reformulation of content material supplied by the teacher, rather than authentic inquiry data that provide opportunities for meaningful interpretation. The research design was a content analysis of documents produced in a naturalistic setting. Data analysis focused on the frequency, placement, and purpose of meaningful inferences embedded in the reports, as well as coding for the elaboration, extension, and enhancement of science ideas. Results indicated that many student reports included a minimal number of written inferences, expressing only vague meanings for the data. However, some students integrated inference and data, using inference to (a) explain specific meanings for data points in context, and (b) pose new hypotheses to explain data. An analysis of expansion characteristics revealed that some students were able to elaborate richly upon their initial ideas through the use of language, thereby generating new meaning for the investigations. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 36: 1044–1061, 1999     

Reasoning about Interactions between Variables

Thinking about interactions between variables is a necessary condition for accurate scientific thinking. The purpose of this study was to investigate difficulties in thinking about interactions between variables and to suggest remedial educational means. A conceptual analysis distinguishes between valid interaction inferences, invalid interaction inferences, and limited inferences which can be seen as a partial or a primitive interaction inference. Empirical findings show that expert thinkers demonstrate thinking about interactions at both an operational and a metastrategic level. Some lay-adults however, although able to draw many limited inferences, encounter substantial difficulties in drawing valid interaction inferences while engaged in an investigation of a scientific sort. Four types of difficulties were identified in this study: lack of a “double set of controlled comparisons” strategy that is necessary for valid inferences about interacting variables; lack of the conceptual framework for interacting factors; diversion of attention to other features; and difficulty in maintaining the necessary control of other variables. The implications of the findings to science curriculum are discussed.     

皮尔士心中的逻辑学：从科学分类法来看

皮尔士试图从科学分类法阐明逻辑学与其他科学之间的诸种关联,从而让我们看到一个既有所主张又有所保留、既充分包容又严格限定的逻辑科学：1.逻辑学作为实证科学,被归在哲学分部中,位居数学这一非实证科学之后;2.即便在哲学内部,逻辑学作为规范科学也不是处在第一位,形而上学倒是排在逻辑学之后,但在逻辑学之前存在着现象学这一哲学分支,而且在规范科学内部还有伦理学、美学位居逻辑学之前;3.逻辑学自身也是一个复杂的学科体系,其不仅关注论证有效性的批判论即今天通常意义上的逻辑,而且把理论意义上的语法和修辞也包括在内。     

Doing phenomenology in science education: a research review

This article is a review of applications of phenomenology, as a philosophy of knowledge and qualitative research approach, to the field of science education (SE). The purpose is to give an overview of work that has been done as well as to assess it and discuss its possibilities of future development. We ask: what attempts for connecting phenomenology and SE do we find in the research literature, and what possible effects could such connections have for teaching and learning? In approaching this field we distinguish between three sources of phenomenological SE: (1) Goethe’s phenomenology of nature; (2) philosophical phenomenology; and (3) anthropological phenomenology. Existing research based on phenomenological approaches is categorised as phenomenology of SE, phenomenology in SE, and phenomenology and SE integrated. Research examples from each category are critically evaluated and discussed. Finally we discuss the question of the relevance of phenomenology to science teaching. Our review indicates that phenomenology has considerable potential as a method for investigating science learning as a holistic process. It also seems that phenomenology and SE meet most fruitfully when phenomenology is done in the classroom, that is, when it is turned into actual efforts for promoting learning.     

概率逻辑及其带来的逻辑哲学问题

"概率逻辑"是亚当斯对有效推理中概率传递(或由此不传递)的研究而提出的一种逻辑思想,它通过把条件概率引入到条件句概率中的方法,在逻辑和概率两者之间建立的一种重要联系,从而把条件句语义的复杂问题简单化。这种联系就是把条件句的概率看作是条件概率,这个思想也被人们称为"亚当斯论题"。人们对"亚当斯论题"是否成立进行了广泛的逻辑哲学讨论。     

转喻的认知语用学研究

转喻是一种普遍的语言现象,在认知语言学研究中具有重要作用。全文首先论述了转喻研究的必要性和可行性,然后对转喻的认知本质作了系统的分析,最后用关联理论中的语用推理对转喻的心理加工过程进行了剖析。笔者认为,转喻使用与隐喻一样,都是为了选择不直接解释说话人思想话语的结果,从关联理论的视域看来,转喻是为了寻求最佳关联而采取的一种方式。转喻的认知意义可以通过语用推理来实现。     

A Vocationalized School Science Curriculum?

This article is concerned with the meaning and legitimacy of the view that the secondary science curriculum can be given a vocational emphasis, and with a current attempt to create such a curriculum. Although this perspective on the science curriculum has a long history, in recent decades it has received little attention. This article examines recent research into the vocational and work‐related aspects of secondary school science, and the historical and policy background. Its empirical focus is a late secondary course with the title “Applied Science”, which was introduced into schools in England and Wales in 2002. It draws on the preliminary findings of a research study focusing on the origins and implementation of this course. Overall, the article provides an overview of the major issues and research agenda associated with the notion of a vocational or applied school science curriculum, focusing ultimately on the key issues of educational purpose, pedagogy, and status.     

教育研究与科学研究——兼论研究生论文指导

教育科学属于社会科学,社会科学与自然科学一样是科学,由此实验科学的实证、假设可以成为教育研究的重要方法,科学哲学的融通、革新观念应当成为教育理论建设重要理念,科学家品性也必须成为教育研究者基本素质。目前需要从研究生阶段理解科学研究,提高科学素质。     

2007 Kneller Lecture,AESA Getting Lost: Social Science and/as Philosophy

This article probes how philosophical structures are immanent in empirical work and how philosophy might be understood when it is within the precincts of science. My interest is in both opening philosophy to disruption by a science that knows itself as inside history and opening science to the costs of its inability to tolerate the necessary lack in any determinism. Against the more typical focus on how philosophy provides the reason of science, here the task is to rethink the relation between empirical work and philosophy in a way that posits an engagement with not knowing as an ethical and political move. The goal of such a project is a double(d) science that works the necessary tensions that structure contemporary social science as fertile ground for the production of new practices where theoretical complexities are used as tools to make a material difference in terms of “what works” in the public interest.     

Experimental evidence for diagramming benefits in science writing

Arguing for the need for a scientific research study (i.e. writing an introduction to a research paper) poses significant challenges for students. When faced with these challenges, students often generate overly safe replications (i.e. fail to find and include opposition to their hypothesis) or in contrast include no strong support for their hypothesis (i.e. relevant, valid evidence). How can we support novice scientists in generating and defending high quality hypotheses? A long history of research supports the affordances provided by structured representations of complex information. More recently, argument diagramming has gained traction in instruction for philosophy, social studies, and law. However, its effectiveness for supporting students in science is relatively untested. The purpose of the current study was to test the effectiveness of a simple argument diagram optimized for supporting students’ research writing in psychology. Two groups of undergraduate students in research methods lab courses were randomly assigned to diagramming support or no support. In the research papers, those given diagramming support were more likely to argue for an appropriately ‘risky’ hypothesis and wrote more about the relevance and validity of cited studies. Some of these gains show signs of transfer to a second paper written later in the course that did not require use of the diagramming tool.     

Developing epistemologically empowered teachers: examining the role of philosophy of chemistry in teacher education

History and philosophy of science have been widely promoted in science teacher education for several decades. However the application of themes from philosophy of science in science teacher education has been rather broad and not particular relative to the domain-specific features of the science in question. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how the new field of philosophy of chemistry can contribute to science teacher education. Since the beginning of the 1990s, philosophy of chemistry has emerged as a relatively new branch of philosophy of science examining the distinctive nature of chemical knowledge. Some implications of this domain in chemical education have been investigated although the research territory in this area remains underdeveloped. The paper is intended to contribute to this area of research by focusing on a particular theme, the microscopic/macroscopic relationship (or the so-called ‘supervenience’ problem) in the context of models and modelling. Literature review of students’ and teachers’ understanding of models and modelling in chemistry highlights the importance of incorporating the epistemological aspects of related chemical concepts. The implications for teacher education are discussed.     

关注产业:STS研究的新视野

通过对我国学术界创立的科学、技术、工程、产业“四元论”和产业哲学的梳理,能够使我们揭示出产业的多重含义,进一步认识到科学、技术、产业、社会之间的关联,以及产业作为科学、技术与社会的中介属性,从而为STS研究提出了新问题.关注产业不仅是STS研究的正确选择,而且是实践转向的STS研究的应有之义,还能够成为具有中国特色的STS研究的新成果.     

自然科学的研究发展与哲学思维的产生形影相随

科学的发展表明,哲学是对社会科学与自然科学的总结,是开展对两类科学研究的钥匙。其一,通过对哲学与自然科学产生与发展的关联性,来探究二者之间的相互关系。其二,揭示现代哲学思维的五个核心内涵及特点,并从深层次领悟哲学对国家理政和经济发展决策的主心骨轻重导向的重要作用。其三,论述了善于观察、懂得比较、敢于质疑、富于想象是解开科学秘密的“万能钥匙”,从而达到通过实证论证,讲述现代大学生如何运用哲学思维去发现、思考、解决问题的理念,最终使我们能科学地将哲学的思维方法应用于对专业的学习和研究,从而为民族的伟大复兴挑起时代的重担。     

谈谈逻辑与科学哲学联合研究的氛围——以潘沁《冯·诺伊曼计算机科学哲学思想研究》为例

冯·诺伊曼是计算机科学的主要奠基者之一,他的论著蕴藏着极为丰富的科学哲学思想。潘沁的博士学位论文《冯。诺伊曼计算机科学哲学思想研究》认为,冯·诺伊曼的科学哲学思想主要有二,一是以“毕这哥拉斯主义思想”为导向,构想自动机的理论模型,并且与后世的“计算主义思想”接轨;二是贯彻亚里士多德“程序目的性”和维纳控制论的“现代目的论”思想于逻辑机器之中。营造与科学哲学联合研究的氛围,对计算机科学研究非常有利。     

政策哲学与行政哲学的关系

政策哲学是以政策现象为逻辑起点,以公共政策理论和公共政策实践之间的矛盾为研究对象,并为这一矛盾的解决提供哲学理论支持的一门应用性边缘学科。行政哲学是以行政现象为逻辑起点,以行政理论和行政实践之间的矛盾为研究对象,并为这一矛盾的解决提供哲学理论支持的一门应用性边缘学科。政策哲学和行政哲学都属于应用哲学范畴。两者既有区别又有联系。     

政治学在美国的开设与发展

美国政治学虽起源于欧洲,但与注重哲学和逻辑推理,强调使用正规的、历史的方法的传统不同,美国政治学注重走自己的路,大力提倡运用科学的方法研究新的知识,使其在全球确立了学科领军地位,美国成为研究政治学的大本营。文章介绍了与政治学密切相关的主要学科、学习政治学的重要性、美国政治学的教堂内容,以及学习政治学在美国的就业前景,对我国政治学的教学研究具有启发意义。