Students Returned from Abroad in the 1990s

Since the 1980s, the increasing cost of education has been a global trend, and there is a growing demand for increasing efficiency in different countries. As a result, education economists began focusing on the issue of efficient allocation of educational resources and borrowed production function from economics to study educational production issues in order to provide empirical evidence for maximization of the effectiveness of educational resources. This paper employs the multiple linear regression model to build a model for the relationship between the allocation of educational resources and student academic performance in public junior secondary schools in rural areas of China's western region. It also provides a decision basis for different levels of government and schools to draw educational resources allocation policies for junior secondary schools in rural areas of China's western region and to improve the quality of education.     

Primary Schooling in China and India: Understanding How Socio-Contextual Factors Moderate the Role of the State

This paper considers how state educational policy and other sociocontextual factors influence primary schooling in two large developing countries. In the late 1940s, national statistics for primary school enrolment and other human development indicators were comparable between China and India. Both countries then experienced major political transitions and embraced similar economic development priorities. Half a century later, reports prepared for the 2000 World Education Forum indicate that China had far outperformed India in terms of school enrolment ratios and on indices of the efficiency of primary education. This article considers the reasons for these differences. It discusses the role of the state, educational policy and its implementation, linkages among educational, economic and social policies, cultural belief systems that are relevant to education, classroom teaching and learning, teacher characteristics, and the physical conditions of schools.     

中等职业教育区域均衡发展的成绩、问题和对策

我国中等职业教育的发展对促进教育公平、实现入学机会均等、缩小区域间人力资源存量差距等方面作出了很大的贡献。但中等职业教育的发展也在办学条件、师资力量、投入水平和校企合作条件等方面存在着比较明显的区域不均衡现象。区域职业教育的均衡发展依赖于资源要素的支撑,更依赖于职业教育校企合作条件的优化。鉴于当前我国校企合作条件正处于U型曲线开始回升的关键时期,中等职业教育发展需要实施分类指导、分区域推进;加大经费投入和保障力度,实施标准化建设;加强东、西部地区的对口支援;优化职业教育运行机制;实现体制机制创新。     

Globalisation and education

This paper analyses the links between globalisation and education. The growth of the global economy has increased opportunities for those countries with good levels of education, but has made growth more difficult for countries with weak levels of education. Countries with good human resources, high savings and good economic policies (chiefly in East and Southeast Asia) have attracted foreign investment and technology, and have experienced fast growth in exports of manufactures and in output per capita. Developed countries find it increasingly difficult to compete with such economies unless they invest in good education, training and skills, leading to high rates of innovation and productivity. Countries with weak levels of human resources have found it more difficult to succeed—and many, especially in Africa, have experienced falling per capita incomes. Globalisation has made it more difficult to build up educational levels in these countries, as public expenditure has been cut during adjustment. Hence virtuous and vicious cycles of development have emerged, with a good spread of education leading to high growth and generating resources for further development of education and, conversely, countries with poor human resources having low or negative growth and reduced potential for building up their educational systems.     

我国区域公共服务均等化分析——基于重庆与上海义务教育的比较

在我国,区域义务教育差距的存在已是不争的事实。作为公共服务的基础内容,义务教育将由非均等逐步走向均等化,这不仅是教育发展的趋势,同时也是区域公共服务均等化的必然要求。文章选取了9个指标,分别从财力、人力和物力三个方面分析与比较重庆、上海在教育投入、教育资源配置等方面存在的诸多差异。通过对重庆、上海两市三方面9个指标的比较研究,得出相应的结论,可为政府的教育决策提供参考依据,具有重要的政策启示意义。     

The effects of adjustment on education: A review of asian experience

Summary and conclusions It is difficult to isolate the effects of adjustment policies on education. Even elaborate country studies could not properly assess the definitive effects of adjustment. As Stanley Fischer (1991, p. 526) observed, ‘the evaluation of adjustment lending is not only extremely difficult, but also essential. None of the methods of evaluation are entirely satisfactory’. Here, an attempt has been made to examine the association between adjustment and the development of education. The effects identified can, at best, be treated asprobable effects. While no causal relationship could be found, intense adjustment is generally associated with declines in a variety of indicators on educational development in Asian countries, similar to patterns observed in many other regions. At the same time, it should also be noted that, on the average, while the education sector in Asian countries suffered during adjustment, it also seems to have been relatively well protected from the brutal effects affecting developing countries in other regions experiencing adjustment. The effects of adjustment, however, have not been uniform on all countries of the Asian region, and several economies suffered severely. It has been found that, during the adjustment processes, the proportion of GNP or of total government expenditure allocated to education declined in a majority of the adjusting (including intensely adjusting) countries, even though the corresponding figures also point to a decline in some of the non-adjusting countries. In a large number of the adjusting countries, the relative share of capital expenditure on education declined and that of current expenditure increased. The allocation of resources to primary education seems to have been protected in most countries, except in Pakistan and Bangladesh. This is also true of non-adjusting countries, such an India and Malaysia, where the relative share of primary education actually increased. More importantly, the real expenditure per student in primary education increased significantly in all countries, with the exception of the Philippines and Nepal, during the first half of the 1980s (the only period for which these data are available). Expenditure per student in primary education as a ratio of GNP per capita also increased in all countries, while the corresponding proportion relating to higher education declined in all countris, except in India. All this indicates that concerted efforts have been made by the adjusting as well as the non-adjusting countries in Asia to protect primary education; a remarkable achievement when compared to other developing countries of the world (see Berstecher & Carr-Hill, 1990). Adjusting countries could have protected primary education from budget cuts through social safety-net programmes introduced as a part of adjustment policies in several countries, as in India during the 199s. However, enrolment ratios in primary education declined in two of the intensely adjusting countries, namely in Pakistan and Thailand. Although the gross enrolment ratio in Pakistan is deplorably low (44% in 1990), Bangladesh registered remarkable progress with increases not only in gross but also in net enrolment ratios, which went up from 54% in 1985 to 69% by the end of the 1980s. The number of pupils per teacher in Bangladesh, however, has increased to one of the highest levels in the region, suggesting that quality was traded-off for quantitative expansion. Internal efficiency also increased in all countries of the region. While gender discrimination has been found to have increased as far as the stock of the educated people is concerned, gender discrimination in enrolments has been coming down in all the countries. Lastly, the relative share of the private sector, although limited at present, seems to be increasing. Fees appear to have been introduced even in primary schools in some countries and have had a negative effect on the demand for education and on total enrolments. Increases in the degree of privatization and the introduction/increase of fees in education have been dominant, thought not necessarily explicit, components of adjustment polcies. While, on the whole, the effects of adjustment on education seemed to be mixed, and no striking difference could be observed between adjusting/intensely adjusting and non-adjusting countries in short-term educational development trends in Asia, the tentative evidence from a few countries does suggest a strong association between adjusting policies and a deterioration in educational situations. Such a strong association is clearly discernible with respect to several important indicators of educational development, although not with respect to all. It would be useful to look into this association more closely in one or two selected countries to clearly understand the effects of adjustment on education. Though the problems that will be found and the associations observd in a particular country may be unique, and may not be relevant for others, such country studies would be valuable to draw lessons, not only for the countries concerned, but also for others. The experience of both the Asian (and even other) countries, as well as of international agencies with structural adjustment programmes is short (about ten of fifteen years). As ‘adjustment’ is a long on-going process, analysis of its effects over a short period of time would be premature and problematic, as quick results cannot be expected. More importantly, it is probable that the ‘positive impacts are realized with a considerable time lag, while its adverse effects are immediate and highly visible ... [but these programmes] may not be sustainable, economically and politically, if their immediate [negative] impacts are not mitigated’ (Yanagihara, 1989, p. 319-21). Otherwise, programmes may not be taken to their logical conclusion. Further, gradual adjustment policies have been generally found to be successful in the East Asian economies, rather than a ‘big bang’ approach involving shocks and sudden simultaneous shifts in all policies in an attempt to move forward quickly (Agrawal et al., 1992, p. 182). The latter approach can, in fact, be counter-productive. As a result of the growing research in the area and the interest of international organizations, such as UNICEF, the adverse effects of structural adjustment on social sectors are being monitored by both the donor agencies, such as the World Bank/IMF, and the countries concerned. Accordingly, structural adjustment programmes are being supplemented in a number of countries with sectoral adjustment and ‘social safety nets’ and other contingency programmes, so that the poor are not severely affected. Primary education is one of the important components of such programmes. In general, it is necessary that structural adjustment programmes and education sector adjustment programmes be integrated, and that the adjustment programmes include agreements on increasing public expenditure on education. Structural adjustment policies without such education sector adjustment programmes and social safety-net programmes that guarantee increases in public expenditure on education are likely to cause serious adverse effects. Hence, ‘it is important that structural adjustment agreements recognize the need for countries to commit new resources and reallocate existing resources toward investment sectors, such as basic education, which affect both social welfae and medium- and long-term economic growth’ (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1992, p. 63). Further, it is necessary for the success of the adjustment programmes that the primary responsibility for the concetion of structural adjustment programmes lie with the national authorities that will implement and sustain the programmes; imposed programmes may not work (Malan, 1991, p. 539). The Republic of Korea is a good example of how structural adjustment programmes could succeed because it was undertaken on the basis of its own conviction. This will also help in reducing the political costs of adjustment programmes. With the level of expertise and competence available in the Asian countries one should expect that shifting the primary responsibility to the national governments is perfectly possible, compared to those regions that do not have indigenous expertise. Of late, some flexibility in and softening of the World Bank/IMF’s hard-line views of precisely what an ideal package of structural adjustment reforms should consist of are visible (Ranis, 1987, p. 97), though it may have to be further improved (Tilak, 1992). Lastly, it should be realized by all-the lending institutions and the countries concerned-that education becomes an important input in the success of the adjustment programmes, and hence investment in education is necessary for the very success and sustenance of structural adjustment programmes. Original language: English Jandhyala B.G. Tilak (India) Head of the Educational Finance Unit, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, Ph.D. from Delhi School of Economics. Mr Tilak taught at the University of Virginia, the Indian Institute of Education and the University of Delhi. He was also on the staff of the World Bank. Recent publications includeEducation for development in Asia (1994),Educational planning at grassroots (1991), and several articles on economics, development studies and education. A contributor to theInternational encyclopaedia of education. Editor of theJournal of educational planning and administration and a member of the editorial board ofHigher education policy.     

我国高等学校收费问题的成因与对策探讨

目前我国高等教育领域收费方面出现的问题有两方面原因。一方面,在高等教育跨越式发展的同时各方面的投入没有同步地予以保证,收费作为成本低廉的费用补偿方式对高校具有吸引力。另一方面,在高校内部就收费的决策过程中,存在着公益人和经济人的力量均衡,也存在着责任部门与非责任部门的力量均衡,力量均衡的结果可能使一些高校出现不规范的收费行为。从近期看,应该加强收费政策的合理性基础,严格管制收费行为做好学生经济资助;从长远看,还要保证政府投入,培育高校工作者的公益和非营利意识,使高校实现良性可持续发展。     

我国教育投资与经济增长的关系研究——基于面板数据和空间计量模型的研究

教育投资是人力资本形成的重要途径。运用教育基尼系数量化了我国1997-2012年30个省份的教育投资公平程度。建立合适的Panel Data进行实证研究我国教育投资和经济增长之间的互动因果关系。研究结果表明教育投资规模对经济增长的促进作用非常明显,但是当基础教育提高到一定水平后,对经济增长的促进作用开始逐步递减;各区域的高等学历人才并不多,对经济增长的贡献率非常低;目前东、中部地区的教育投资的公平状况明显好于西部地区,公平的教育资源分配可以较好促进经济的发展。     

Planning post-primary education: Taking targets to task

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have shaped much educational target setting by governments and their development partners to the extent that they have focused on just two of the commitments—universal enrolment and completion of primary schooling, and gender equality in primary and secondary school access and achievement. A consequence is that many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have yet to develop coherent plans for the post-primary sub-sector. Yet without expanded access beyond primary it is unlikely that the MDGs will be achieved. Privileging investment in the enrolment and completion of the last primary child over-investment at post-primary levels may satisfy a rights-based approach to development; it may not be the best strategy to sustain gains in access to educational services or to alleviate poverty through redistribution or growth. Skews in investment unfavourable to post-primary are partly the result of target setting that has been narrowly interpreted and which depends on assumptions that become questionable on close analysis.This paper first summarises the case for reconsidering investment strategies for post-primary education in general, and for secondary schooling in particular. Second, it explores issues related to target setting and target getting in relation to post-primary provision, many of which apply to target setting generally. Finally, concluding remarks draw together the case to reconsider how targets are defined and how they might be used in national planning more productively.     

我国教育财政投入比例及与中低收入国家的比较

教育投入比例是衡量一国政府对教育努力程度的主要指标,合理的教育财政投入比例是教育发展、经济增长的重要保障。本文在辨析国际通用的教育财政统计指标之后,分析比较了我国从1991年到2005年的教育财政投入变化情况,并与世界上中低收入国家的平均状况相比较。结论认为:预算内教育经费指标是与国际接轨的统计口径;长期以来我国教育财政投入比例一直很低,且低于世界同类国家公共教育经费支出的平均水平;应切实提高我国教育投入比例,尽早实现财政性教育经费占GDP4%的目标。     

亚太地区的高等教育与社会发展

根据对亚太国家和地区的调查数据 ,评价了一些已被广泛认可的假设 ,同时也论述了高等教育与社会发展的关系。认为亚太地区发展中国家的高等教育应有相应的优先发展权。文章还对亚太地区高等教育的发展水平和公共政策 (其中也包括关于高等教育和私立高等教育的筹资政策 )作了评价 ,强调必须增加对高等教育的公共投资 ,反对过分依赖成本回收措施和私立高等教育。     

基础教育“重点校”政策分析

我国基础教育"重点校"政策是社会经济非均衡发展战略在教育中的体现。"重点校"政策在推动部分学校教育质量提高的同时,也扩大了城乡间、学校间在资源配置和教育质量上的差距,导致了教育公平的缺失,使得基础教育群体间入学机会不公平,尤其接受优质教育不公平。应从制度入手,推进教育管理制度、教育人事制度、教育财政制度的改革,缩小基础教育校际差别,逐步取消"重点校"政策,使公众享受到较为公平的教育。     

发展农村教育的投入问题研究

重视农村教育的公共投入,加大农村人力资本开发力度,对于实现国民经济健康快速发展具有重大意义。我国农村教育存在公共投入财政教育经费投入不足、农村义务教育占义务教育公共支出的比重偏低、各级政府负担的教育经费不合理等问题,阻碍了我国农村教育的进一步发展。为此,应该加大政府尤其是中央政府对农村教育经费总量投入,完善农村教育经费的投入体制,建立多元主体农村教育投资模式。     

我国民办高等教育发展特殊性的若干分析

我国民办高等教育发展的特殊性不仅体现在其发展历史上有一个近三十年的中断期,在发展环境上面对着强大的公立高等教育系统、短缺的公共教育经费投入和不完备的法律制度,而且在办学方式上民办高校大部分是投资办学。分析民办高等教育发展的特殊性,有助于全面认识民办高等教育的发展现状、正确理解民办高等教育的发展趋势,以期明确民办高等学校的性质,完善民办高等教育法律,为民办高等教育营造良好的制度环境。     

农村小学学校效能及其影响因素研究——学校效能综合模型在我国的运用

本研究借鉴Creemers学校效能综合模型探索中国农村中小学学校效能的影响因素。本研究以学生学校适应性为学校效能的一个替代指标,于2006-2008年对我国西部地区的甘肃、宁夏、四川、云南、广西等5个省份的73所农村小学、2864名学生进行调查,使用多水平模型对农村小学学校效能的影响因素进行分析,结果发现:(1)不同学校对学生学校适应性的影响存在显著差异;(2)学校因素对学生的学习方法、师生关系以及自我评价等方面影响较大;(3)学校生源质量对学生学校适应性发展的影响更大;(4)课堂教学方式对学生学校适应性提高有积极影响。     

公共教育投资比例国际比较研究

本文采用国际横截面数据,从经济发展和教育发展两个角度分析了影响公共教育投资比例的因素,并对未来我国公共教育投资比例进行了预测.研究得出的结论是:一、应该主要以经济变量来解释和预测公共教育投资比例的变化;二、借鉴国际经验,考虑我国公共教育投资比例的变化趋势时应主要参考中等收入国家的情况;三、我国公共教育投资比例将在2010年达到3.7%,而在2020年达到4.5%.     

民办教育发展的政策制约与调整

《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020年)》提出,要形成公办教育和民办教育共同发展的格局。然而,这一目标的实现,需要相关政策的调整,因为,民办教育无论在国家财政拨款、税收优惠等显性投入上还是在社会保障、专项资助等一些隐性投入上都无法与公办教育相比,这一切都不利于公办教育和民办教育的共同发展。所以必须通过深化体制改革,调整相关法律法规和政策,营造有利于民办教育健康发展的制度环境。     

Education and economic development: The fundamentals revisited

Education levels are positively related to variables which are themselves indicators of economic development, yet there is no direct linkage between education levels and economic development On the evidence of the past 24 years it appears that the countries experiencing higher growth rates are those which combine high investment levels and large education outlays with a set of supporting domestic policies. These policies are revealed by substantial factor productivity gains, which are especially related to openness to the international environment. There is evidence that specifically vocational training is a less efficient use of public education resources than generic or “academic” education.     

合理配置教育资源 全面提升西部基础教育

把基础教育推给社会或市场，寄希望于社会集资、捐赠和社会力量办学，是极不妥当的。在这一领域内，市场主体介入的可能性很小，作为公共物品的基础教育，政府有无可旁贷的提供之责。基础教育由中央财政承担，将会极大地推进经济落后地区基础教育的发展，有利于改变我国目前教育资源、基础设施和文化资源配置的极不均衡状态。     

推进西部教育发展提升人力资源能力

教育的发展是一个国家和地区经济社会发展所需人力资源的最基本的来源。教育投入的政策和措施是教育事业持续健康发展的重要保障。而从西部地区来看,教育的总体水平低和地区问发展的不平衡性仍然是制约西部人力资源能力提升的关键因素。因此,西部地区要因地制宜,明确教育发展的地域布局和定位,加大教育发展的投入力度、调整教育发展的层次结构、加快教育发展的体制创新。