On Drawing,Visual Language and the Pictorial Image: An Interview with John Willats

The editorial team of TRACEY, an online drawing journal hosted by Loughborough University School of Art & Design, was interested to learn more about John Willats’s current thinking on the subject of drawing and to put to him a number of specific questions to do with the functions of drawn marks, notions of pictorial syntax, the role of ambiguity and imprecision in drawing and future directions for drawing research. He kindly agreed to an interview, which took place in his Somerset studio on Thursday 6th December 2001. The following is an edited version of that interview.     

Mapping the Domain of Drawing

A synthesis of perception theory and communication theory is presented as the basis for a new teaching programme of drawing for first–year fine art undergraduates. The domain of drawing is mapped as a matrix of systems of choices available to the drawer in order to realise the functions of drawing within a social context. It is argued that an increased awareness of this domain may empower students’ practice.     

The Original Creative Principle

The following imaginary interview is linked to an hour long drawing workshop carried out during the 2002 NSEAD Annual Conference ‘Creativity in Art & Design Education’. The intention was to get closer to the experience by raising questions. I hope those who participated may recognise it as, in some way, connected to their experience. The American Artist, Robert Motherwell maintained an interest in psychic automatism throughout his life. Although he remained suspicious of its mystical connotations [1] fundamental principles appeared to inform his working methods. Motherwell identified a number of key issues which serve to define its potential in the origination and development of paintings and drawings. He saw the process as “...very little a question of the unconscious, but much more a plastic weapon with which to invent new forms.”[2] Motherwell’s analysis and, to some extent defence, of the process is as follows: 1. It cuts through any a priori influences — it is not a style 2. It is entirely personal 3. It is, by definition, original 4. It can be modified stylistically and in subject matter at any point during the process. The proposed drawing workshop seeks to explore Motherwell’s approach and by definition, exposes a related and learning and teaching strategy. The process serves as a catalyst for creative thinking, exploiting analogy, simile and metaphor in the generation of artistic and personally defined contexts or narratives.     

Power Drawing

Power Drawing is the education programme of the Campaign for Drawing initiated by the Guild of St George. Primarily a research and development programme, it focuses on drawing in schools and other educational settings and investigates how the use of drawing can help children and young people learn in a variety of subjects. The intention is to develop a range of strategies, methods and techniques to support learning through drawing. This paper explains the ideas underpinning the programme, how it is organised and the research methods used. It describes and reflects on the experience of the first year of the action research, and comments on some of the satisfactions and tensions that have emerged. It outlines how these will influence further development.     

Conversations Around Young Children’s Drawing: The Impact of the Beliefs of Significant Others at Home and School

Children learn to make meanings in communities of practice through interaction with more experienced others. Young children’s strategies for and attitudes to learning are determined by the sociocultural contexts in which they practise those strategies, including learning how to draw within the distinct cultures of home and school. Evidence of meaning making — 2 and 3D representations involving drawing, modelling and play with objects — was collected over one month periods in the Autumns of 98, 99 and 00 from seven young children in home and as they settled into new pre–school and school settings in the North of England. The evidence of the seven children’s meaning making, recorded by photographs and scrap books of their representations, was used as a stimulus in dialogues to elicit parents’ and practitioners’ beliefs about the value and significance of different modes meaning making, including drawing in the contexts of home and school. Their conversations were recorded and transcribed for analysis. Evidence from the perspectives of parents, practitioners and the children was triangulated with evidence of contextual features for learning around the children’s drawings. Episodes from analysis of the data sets will be used to illustrate how the children were inducted into the conventions of ‘school’ drawing whilst often retaining a distinct personal drawing agenda at home. Implications will be drawn for the status and function of drawing in the education of young children in formal and informal learning contexts.     

Sketching Now

This paper discusses the role of the sketch in design when freehand drawing is under pressure from digital image manipulation both in higher education and professional practice. Placed in a broad design context embracing experience, skill and knowledge, the meaning of ‘sketch’ is being explored against a background of past and current practices in analogue and digital media. Locating the sketch in the design process various analogue and digital relationships are presented, including speed and fidelity. It concludes that sketching can be seen as a form of visual improvisation independent of any particular drawing system that allows designers to explore the sketch both as a means of self–expression and a means of communication.     

Briefing Illustrators: Revisiting the Value of Sketch Images

In 1990 Steve Garner produced a school text book titled Design Topics: The Human Factors of Design. He briefed the various graphic artists engaged by the publishers, Oxford University Press, via nearly 140 thumbnail sketches. A comparison of these sketches with the final illustrations reveals important values of drawing. Not only do the comparisons enable the viewer to see something of the intent of the sender, they reveal processes of interpretation, selection, rejection and development, which are normally not available to examination. The paper seeks to contribute to substantiating the value of sketches to these processes of design team working. Since the author is also the originator of the sketches an additional level of insight and commentary is made available to the reader via a process of reflection.     

Drawing on the Past: Reflecting on the Future

This paper examines the connections between the training models of late 19th century Schools of Design (Art) as exemplified by the first municipal School of Art (Margaret Street, Birmingham) and the current preparation of specialist teachers of Art and Design. A recurrent theme is the paradox of objective, measurable standards, pitted against notions of subjective independent learning, individual relevance and choice. Consistent with other papers from this author, the thrust of the perspective is questioning the compatibility of an examination–dominated agenda and opportunities for experimentation, creative risk taking and forms of supported, purposeful play. Continuing research explores the concept and purpose of drawing in an increasingly technological, global information society.     

Developing a School Drawing Policy with Newly Qualified Teachers of Art and Design

This paper describes part of a one–day course run by the authors for Newly Qualified Teachers of art and design (NQTs) planned to develop subject knowledge and assessment expertise. The former was achieved partly through an examination of the roles of drawing in secondary school art and design education. Through review and discussion of their pupils’ drawings, the NQTs developed ideas about the functions and purposes of drawing. These ideas were then refined and some practical work undertaken. The nature of drawing policies for secondary art and design departments was considered. The session concluded with a consideration of ideas that might inform the development of such a drawing policy. Secondly, the authors take up and develop several issues from the NQTs’ ideas and responses. These include reference to participants’ drawing performance and understanding, their judgements about the value of drawing, and to how these may be influenced by factors in art education, including those associated with GCSE and assessment. Finally, reference is made to two distinctive perceptions of drawing in schools and, with reference to the work of Wilson, Hurwitz and Wilson, the authors suggest a strategy and argue for the development of drawing policy and curricula for secondary school art departments. The paper is based on part of a presentation given at the Annual Conference of the NSEAD, York, 2002.     

Children’s Drawing,Self Expression,Identity and the Imagination

Directions, Volume 18 Number 1 [1] suggests that postmodern theory is beginning to have a significant effect upon educational practice. Atkinson [2] has directed attention towards the effects of both the construction of the subject and the real within art teaching. Much postmodern theory challenges the unitary, pre–existing subject. This paper will argue that the persistence of an ideology of self–expression which asserts that all representation is in connection with (should be read in relation to) a singular, pure, pre–existing self acts to limit our understandings of the complexity of children’s representations and is in conflict with many contemporary positions. Research has centred on the development of ‘out of school’ sketchbooks. Large sketchbooks were given out to nursery and reception children paired with older siblings in primary education. Possible drawing activities and interests were discussed and children were left to develop the sketchbooks at home. Two weeks later (including a half term holiday) the children were interviewed in relation to the drawings developed. The drawings have been considered in relation to contemporary approaches to self and identity. The conclusions of this paper revolve around the possibilities of reading children’s drawing in relation to self and identity through the interaction of social context, discursive practice and agency in a manner which is suggested by Ricouer’s formulation of the social imaginary. Additionally, the substitution of tenacious notions of expression with concepts of agency and contingency grounded in the characteristics of ‘citationality’, articulation and narrative are suggested as a basis for developing the educational potential of drawing.     

Power Drawing at Bath Spa University College School of Art & Design

Two intensive drawing weekends were held to at Bath Spa University College, School of Art & Design – in September 2001 and again in 2002. The weekends are designed as ‘taster’ events for the NSEAD Artist–Teacher Scheme and have been a joint venture between the Society and ‘Power Drawing’ the education programme of ‘The Campaign for Drawing’. The Artist–Teacher Scheme is based on the simple belief that art and design teachers who maintain their own creative practice are significantly more effective in the classroom or studio and more likely to be satisfied with their work in education. The scheme aims to provide opportunities for artist–teachers to review and develop their creative practice in relation to the highest levels of contemporary practice in the contexts of higher education institutions and art museums and galleries. The Campaign for Drawing is led by the Guild of St George, a charity founded by John Ruskin. It aims to promote visual literacy as an integral part of learning at all ages, to investigate the functions of drawing across the curriculum and to develop appropriate learning and teaching strategies. Artist Teachers who have led the weekends include Eileen Adams (Education Programme Leader Power Drawing), Sonia Boyce, Bob Briggs, Peter Feroze, John McNorton, Sheila Paine, Lesley Sanderson and Tom Wood. Over 100 teachers have experienced the drawing weekend to date and another event is planned for 2003.     

Book Reviews

Perceptions of the role and efficacy of written feedback in teaching and learning among teaching staff in British higher education institutions have not been extensively researched. In the present study 48 lecturers in one university and from a cross-section of disciplinary backgrounds were interviewed with respect to their lived experiences with writing assessment feedback. Like most universities, theirs has a stated commitment to academic excellence by, among other things, ensuring timely and useful feedback on assignments. The findings suggest, however, that institutional policies and departmental practices related to formative assessment in this respect are not having the intended effect. Teachers have varied perceptions and beliefs about the purposes of written feedback, and are uncertain about what it achieves and what use students make of it. Far from enhancing written feedback, innovative practices and procedures have created new problems for teachers. There is a clear need for continuing research in this area.     

Book Reviews

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on primary teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning and in particular about their preferred ways of teaching; how they integrate National Curriculum requirements into their teaching programmes and their views about stereotyped ‘models’ of pedagogy. The authors conclude that learning and teaching are understood as highly complex and cannot be subsumed under one particular model. They suggest that most primary school teachers adopt an eclectic approach, but that frequently they are confused about the content of the mix or which approach might be most appropriately used in any particular context.     

Book Reviews

Catherine Twomey Fosnot (ed), Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives and Practice.
Basil Bernstein, Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research, Critique
Robert Jackson, Religious Education, an Interpretive Approach.
Ben Cosin and Margaret Hales (eds), Families, Education and Social Difference.
Gareth Elwyn Jones, The Education of a Nation.
Kamala Nehaul, The Schooling of Children of Caribbean Heritage.
Ann Hodgson and Ken Spours (eds), Dearing and Beyond: 14–19 Qualification, Frameworks and Systems.
Brian Wilcox and John Gray, Inspecting Schools: Holding Schools to Account and Helping Schools to Improve.
Patricia F. Murphy and Caroline V. Gipps (eds), Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys.
Thomas P. Rohlen and Gerald K. LeTendre (eds), Teaching and Learning in Japan.
Alan Ryan, John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism.
Ron Glatter, Philip A. Woods and Carl Bagley (eds), Choice and Diversity to Schooling: Perspectives and Prospects.
Ved Varma (ed), Managing Children with Problems.
Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison, A Guide to Teaching Practice.
Andy Hargreaves, Lorna Earl and Jim Ryan, Schooling for Change: Reinventing Education for Early Adolescents
Michael Peters and James Marshall, Individualism and Community: Education and Social Policy in the Postmodern Condition     

Book Reviews

Abstract

Educators have invested considerable effort in developing environmental education programs that address students' knowledge, attitudes, and action competence regarding environmental issues. The authors explore the effectiveness of such programs in terms of both student learning outcomes and the intergenerational influence that results when students discuss their learning experiences with their parents and other community members. Six environmental education programs involving 284 students in Queensland schools, from Grades 5-12, were investigated. Students and their parents were surveyed and interviewed regarding their perceptions about the program, the program's influence on their environmental learning, and the extent and nature of discussions that the program stimulated between students and their parents. The authors draw conclusions about key features that should be incorporated into environmental education programs to encourage and empower students to bring about environmental change in their homes and communities.     

Book Reviews

ABSTRACT

Student foundational knowledge of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is formed in their elementary education. Paradoxically, many elementary teachers have constrained background knowledge, confidence, and efficacy for teaching STEM that may hamper student STEM learning. The association between teacher preparation to teach STEM and student achievement in STEM motivated the authors' professional development program. The authors created and implemented a professional development program to address K–5 teacher confidence for, attitudes toward, knowledge of, and efficacy for teaching inquiry-based STEM. Using data from 2 independent cohorts the authors found significant and consistent increases in pre- to postinstitute assessments of teacher confidence, efficacy, and perceptions of STEM. Further, they found increased participant attention toward linking STEM curriculum and instruction to learning standards. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Book Reviews

This article is concerned with understanding continuity and stability in teaching, and their significance. It looks particularly at the work of Anthony Giddens on structure and agency, that of Martin Heidegger on the limits of discursive and theoretical analysis, and the communitarian strand within ethics. It applies this discussion to understandings of teachers’ work in the context especially of policy and agendas for change, arguing that continuity and the notion of a community of practitioners is critical to maintaining the distinctive ethical quality of teaching.     

Book Reviews

Books reviewed:
Richard Edwards and Robin Usher, Globalisation and Pedagogy: Space, place and identity
Jackie Brine, Educating Women: Globalizing Inequality
David Carr, Professionalism and Ethics
Andrew Pollard and Ann Filer, The Social World of Pupil Career: Strategic Biographies through Primary School
Bernard Crick, Essays on Citizenship
Mike Bottery and Nigel Wright, Teachers and the State: Towards a Directed Profession
Stephen Heathorn, For Home, Country and Race: Constructing Gender, Class and Englishness in the Elementary School 1880-1914
Jane M. Page, Reframing the Early Childhood Curriculum: Educational Imperatives for the Future
Leslie P. Steffe and Patrick W. Thompson (eds), Radical Constructivism in Action
Patricia Broadfoot, Marilyn Osborne, Clare Planel and Keith Sharpe, Promoting Quality in Learning – Does England have the Answer?
Claire Cameron, Peter Moss and Charlie Owen, Men in the Nursery: Gender and Caring Work
Mike Cole (ed), Education, Equality and Human Rights
R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot and D. Phillips, Learning from Comparing: New Directions in Comparative Educational Research , Volume 1 Contexts, Classrooms and Outcomes
OECD, Learning to Bridge the Digital Divide     

Book Reviews

Books reviewed:
Alistair Ross, Curriculum: construction and critique
E.C. Wragg, G.S. Haynes. C.M. Wragg, R.P. Chamberlin, Failing Teachers?
C. Winch, Education, Work and Social Capital: Towards a New Conception of Vocational Education
Carol Vincent, Including Parents.
Theo Co, (ed), Combating Educational Disadvantage.
Celeste M. Brody, Kasi Allen Fuller, Penny Poplin Gosetti, Susan Randles Moscato, Nancy G. Nagel, Glenellen Pace and Patricia Schmuck, Gender Consciousness and Privilege
H.Altrichter and J.Elliott (eds), Images of Educational Change
David Scott (ed), Curriculum and Assessment.
Sue McGinty (ed), The Politics and Machinations of Education Research: International Case Studies
Frank Coffield (ed), Differing Visions of a Learning Society
Binns, T and Fisher, C (eds), Issues in Geography Teaching
James Arthur and Robert Phillips (eds), Issues in History Teaching
Paul Clarke, Learning Schools, Learning Systems     

Book Reviews

What does it mean for a mentoring program to succeed? Most evaluations focus on participants' perceptions of success. Few studies employ an independent measure of the intended outcomes of the program, and fewer still examine both participant satisfaction and achievement. This article presents an example of how comparing data on perceived and achieved success can foster new insights into the trade‐offs inherent in program design and improvement. Based on an analysis of survey and interview data from an online mentoring program in which 17 history experts supported 108 high school students in historical research, it was found that mentees' satisfaction did not correlate with their achievement of intended program outcomes. Further analysis illuminated design trade‐offs between the aspects of the online mentoring program that supported perceived success and those that supported intended outcomes. The authors argue that examining such trade‐offs in other mentoring programs may facilitate their improvement over time.