Dynamic mental models in learning science: The importance of constructing derivational linkages among models

We present a theory of learning in science based on students deriving conceptual linkages among multiple models which represent physical phenomena at different levels of abstraction. The models vary in the primitive objects and interactions they incorporate and in the reasoning processes that are used in running them. Students derive linkages among models by running a model (embodied in an interactive computer simulation) and reflecting on its emergent behaviors. The emergent properties they identify in turn become the primitive elements of the more abstract, derived model. We describe and illustrate derivational links among three models for basic electricity: a particle model, an aggregate model, and an algebraic model. We then present results of an instructional experiment in which we compared high school students who were exposed to these model derivations with those who were not. In all other respects, both groups of students received identical instruction. The results demonstrate the importance of enabling students to construct derivational linkages among models, both with respect to their understanding of circuit theory and their ability to solve qualitative and quantitative circuit problems. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 36: 806–836, 1999     

Task-dependent construction of mental models as a basis for conceptual change

Learning can be seen as a task-oriented process which often requires the reorganization of existing knowledge, usually referred to as conceptual change. This paper describes a theoretical framework for the analysis of conceptual change that considers conceptual knowledge as a generative cognitive tool for the creation of more specific mental representations — propositional symbolic structures and analog mental models. According to this view, conceptual change is based on a task-oriented interaction between these different kinds of mental representations. The assumption is made that it is possible to foster conceptual change by presenting to students well-defined tasks that stimulate the construction of elaborated mental models as well as an intensive interaction between these models and the corresponding propositional representations. In order to test this assumption an empirical study was conducted, in which subjects had to express their prior knowledge about a complex subject matter from the field of geography (time differences on the earth), which contained various conceptual deficits. The subjects were then randomly assigned to different groups who received the same learning material but had to solve different learning tasks requiring differently structured mental models. Afterwards, the subjects were asked to express their knowledge about the subject matter again and were tested for understanding with a comprehension test. The results support the view that a task-oriented interaction between propositional structures and mental models can help learners to evaluate the consistency of their conceptual knowledge. Accordingly, conceptual deficits result in the formation of mental models with an inadequate structure. Such deficits can be detected if the respective model is used in a sufficiently variable way, whereas they can remain unnoticed if it is used in a limited manner.     

Argumentation Practices in Classroom: Pre-service teachers' conceptual understanding of chemical equilibrium

This study examines the impact of argumentation practices on pre-service teachers' understanding of chemical equilibrium. The sample consisted of 100 pre-service teachers in two classes of a public university. One of these classes was assigned as experimental and the other as control group, randomly. In the experimental group, the subject of chemical equilibrium was taught by using argumentative practices and the participants were encouraged to participate in the lessons actively. However, the instructor taught the same subject by using the lecturing method without engaging argumentative activities in the control group. The Chemical Equilibrium Concept Test and Written Argumentation Survey were administered to all participants to assess their conceptual understanding and the quality of their arguments, respectively. The analysis of covariance results indicate that argumentation practices significantly improved conceptual understanding of the experimental group when compared to the control group. Furthermore, the results show that the pre-service teachers exposed to argumentative practices constructed more quality arguments than those in the control group after the instruction. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the instruction based on argumentative practices is effective in concept teaching in science education. Therefore, argumentation should be explicitly taught in teacher education besides elementary and secondary education.     

The effectiveness of conceptual change texts in remediating high school students’ alternative conceptions concerning chemical equilibrium

This study investigated the effectiveness of conceptual change texts in remediating high school students’ alternative conceptions concerning chemical equilibrium. A quasi-experimental design was used in this study. The subjects for this study consisted of a total 78 tenth-grade students, 38 of them in the experimental group and 40 of them in the control group. A questionnaire, the Alternative Conceptions about Chemical Equilibrium Test (ACCET), was developed and administered to students as a pretest and posttest. While the experimental group received a conceptual change text instruction, the control group received a traditional style instruction. The results of the study indicated that the students in the experimental group showed significantly greater levels of achievement than the students in the control group. Moreover, in both groups the percentages of students’ alternative conceptions decreased in the however the experimental group did better than the control group.     

Effectiveness of holistic mental model confrontation in driving conceptual change

Prior research on conceptual change has identified multiple kinds of misconceptions at different levels of representational complexity including false beliefs, flawed mental models, and incorrect ontological categories. We hypothesized that conceptual change of a mental model requires change in the system of relations between the features of the prior model. To test this hypothesis, we compared instruction aimed at revising knowledge at the mental model level called holistic confrontation - in which the learner compares and contrasts a diagram of his or her flawed mental model to an expert model - to instruction aimed at revising knowledge at the false belief level - in which the learner is prompted to self-explain the expert model alone. We found evidence that participants who engaged in holistic confrontation were more likely to acquire a correct mental model, and a deeper understanding of the systems of relations in the model than those who were prompted to self-explain the expert model. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for science instruction.     

Classroom conceptual change: philosophical perspectives

Researchers of students’ concepts and conceptual change frequently draw analogies to the history of science. The analogy is generally presented when comparing students’ scientific concepts to similar ones in the history of science. We have tried to show the importance of this analogy on a higher level ‐‐ that of understanding the process of conceptual change in general among students.

This article outlines a number of lines in the philosophy of science and analyses differences between the perspectives of a number of broadly constructivist positions which have developed during this century.

The analysis is used to clarify the theoretical basis on which research into student conceptual change is conducted and interpreted.     

Dynamic characteristics of mental models and dynamic visual displays

Mental models are hypothetical constructs for explaining human cognitive processes of understanding external reality, translating the reality into internal representation and utilizing it in problem solving. Three experiments were conducted to investigate important characteristics of mental models, their influence on task performance, and instructional strategies facilitating their formation. The experiments were conducted in computer-based training environments designed to teach troubleshooting electronic logic circuits. The results suggested: (a) dynamic characteristics of mental models are important for solving problems if understanding functional behaviors of the system is required to perform the task; (b) dynamic characteristics of mental models are determined primarily by subjects' understanding of the system features and functions more than by the visually presented training contents of the system; and (c) motion simulating system functions in visual displays is more effective than static visual displays in facilitating the formation of dynamic characteristics of mental models. Consequently, dynamic visual displays are more effective than static visual displays for teaching electronic troubleshooting skills. These findings provide direct implications for the development of training programs.     

Understanding conceptual change: connecting and questioning

We engage in a metalogue based on eight papers in this issue of Cultural Studies of Science Education that review the state of conceptual change research and its possible affect on the teaching and learning of science. Our discussion addresses three aspects of conceptual change research: theoretical, methodological, and practical, as we discuss conceptual change research in light of our experiences as science educators. Finally, we examine the implications of conceptual change research for the teachers and students with whom we work.

Exploring the use of multiple analogical models when teaching and learning chemical equilibrium

This study describes the multiple analogical models used to introduce and teach Grade 12 chemical equilibrium. We examine the teacher's reasons for using models, explain each model's development during the lessons, and analyze the understandings students derived from the models. A case study approach was used and the data were drawn from the observation of three consecutive Grade 12 lessons on chemical equilibrium, pre‐ and post‐lesson interviews, and delayed student interviews. The key analogical models used in teaching were: the “school dance”; the “sugar in a teacup”; the “pot of curry”; and the “busy highway.” The lesson and interview data were subject to multiple, independent analyses and yielded the following outcomes: The teacher planned to use the students' prior knowledge wherever possible and he responded to student questions with stories and extended and enriched analogies. He planned to discuss where each analogy broke down but did not. The students enjoyed the teaching but built variable mental models of equilibrium and some of their analogical mappings were unreliable. A female student disliked masculine analogies, other students tended to see elements of the multiple models in isolation, and some did not recognize all the analogical mappings embedded in the teaching plan. Most students learned that equilibrium reactions are dynamic, occur in closed systems, and the forward and reverse reactions are balanced. We recommend the use of multiple analogies like these and insist that teachers always show where the analogy breaks down and carefully negotiate the conceptual outcomes. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 42: 1135–1159, 2005     

大学再造:按流程组建结构

传统大学的结构是以职能和产品为单位进行组建的 ,割裂了学生的培养过程 ,影响了培养质量。本文借鉴流程型组织的组建原则 ,提出按流程组建大学结构的设想 ,通过建立一体化教学团队、校机关保留少数关键职能、成立质量控制与评估办公室、设立一体化教学团队负责人职位、鼓励教师参加多个一体化教学团队 ,实现传统大学向流程型大学转型     

Patterns of conceptual change in evolution

The purpose of this study was to investigate the patterns of students' conceptual restructuring within the theoretical framework of biologic evolution. The study draws on conceptual change theory in an effort to define the limits of the theory and suggest other models of restructuring. Through a series of 17 structured and open-ended interviews with each of 4 participants, the students' changing conceptions about facets of evolutionary theory were documented throughout the school year. Interview questions were developed from the wealth of alternative conceptions documented in the literature, and many interview techniques were employed to assure the mode validity of all research findings. The conceptual change documented demonstrates that many conceptions in this content area are closely interwoven, so that a change in one conception requires a change in many others. Four patterns of conceptual change were seen: (a) cascade, (b) wholesale, (c) incremental, and (d) dual constructions. Of these 4, only 2 conform to the changes described by conceptual change theory. The other two patterns suggest that different models of conceptual restructuring are required for further science education research. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Theory of mind and conceptual change

We agree with the commentaries by Scholl and Leslie, and also by Moses, that the meta-analytic findings do not definitively rule out early competence accounts. But they do make extant versions of such accounts increasingly unlikely. In particular, the meta-analytic findings argue against executive function expression accounts, including the Theory-of-Mind Mechanism/Selection Processor account advocated by Scholl and Leslie. Specifically, Scholl and Leslie articulate two explicit predictions of their account: that task manipulations that attenuate inhibitory demands should differentially advantage older children, and that theory-of-mind developments should occur with consistent timetables. Both of these specific predictions are clearly contradicted, not supported, by the meta-analytic findings.     

Toward an explanation of conceptual change

In this paper, an alternative ‘explanation’ of conceptual change is offered. It is argued that the problem of explaining conceptual stability and change can be divided into three parts; accounting for conceptual change entails specifying some factors affecting each of the following: old conceptions’ persistence, new conceptions’ acquisition, and cognitive restructuring. Some factors affecting each sub‐problem are discussed, and the literature is reviewed to support the significance of these factors.     

Strategic intelligence: A conceptual system of leadership for change

Strategic intelligence is a conceptual system of leadership qualities. These qualities must be considered in the context of the challenges facing leaders and the relationships between leaders and the people they lead. A leader's philosophy and personality influence the way he or she expresses the qualities of strategic intelligence when things are going according to plan and when leaders face significant conflicts. Leaders can be most effective by tapping into the intrinsic motivations of followers.     

Kuhn and conceptual change: on the analogy between conceptual changes in science and children

This article argues that the analogy between conceptual changes in the history of science and conceptual changes in the development of young children is problematic. We show that the notions of ‘conceptual change’ in Kuhn and Piaget’s projects, the two thinkers whose work is most commonly drawn upon to support this analogy, are not compatible in the sense usually claimed. We contend that Kuhn’s work pertains not so much to the psychology of individual scientists, but to the way philosophers and historians should describe developments in communities of scientists. Furthermore, we argue that the analogy is based on a misunderstanding of the nature of science and the relation between science and common sense. The distinctiveness of the two notions of conceptual change has implications for science education research, since it raises serious questions about the relevance of Kuhn’s remarks for the study of pedagogical issues.     

Concept substitution: An instructional strategy for promoting conceptual change

Numerous studies have shown that students often hold conceptions that conflict with accepted scientific ideas, both prior to and after instruction. The failure of instruction to affect students' conceptions can be interpreted as a failure to facilitate conceptual change. In this paper, an instructional strategy will be described that facilitates conceptual change in the special case where conceptual difficulties appear to arise because students confuse related physics concepts. The strategy involves two parts. Firstly, students observe an experiment or demonstration that conflicts with what they expect to see. Secondly, the instructor identifies students' intuitions that are correct but that they have associated with an incorrect physics term, and substitutes the correct physics term. Students can thus develop more scientifically acceptable understandings of physics concepts without having to give up their intuitive ideas. The use of this strategy will be illustrated in two domains of physics. Specializations: physics education, conceptual development, instructional design, improvement of tertiary science education.     

Textual and graphical refutations: Effects on conceptual change learning

Refutation text is potentially more effective than standard text for conceptual change. Learning from text and graphic is also potentially superior to learning from text alone. In two studies, we investigated the effectiveness of both a refutation text and a refutation graphic for promoting high school students’ conceptual change learning about season change, as well as their metacognitive awareness of conceptual conflict and knowledge revision. In both studies, participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (1) standard text with standard graphic, (2) standard text with refutation graphic, (3) refutation text with standard graphic, or (4) refutation text with refutation graphic. Both studies had a pretest, immediate post-test, and delayed post-test design and involved students with an initial common misconception about the causes of season change. In Study 2, explicit relevance instructions to observe the important illustration were given to the participants. In both studies, refutation text with refutation graphic was not more beneficial than other instructional materials, either at immediate or delayed post-test. In Study 1, more stable conceptual change learning emerged in readers of the refutation text with standard graphic compared to readers in the control condition. In Study 2, readers of the standard text with refutation graphic performed as well as readers of the refutation text with standard graphic. In addition, more readers of the refutation text with either graphic showed metacognitive awareness of their knowledge change compared to readers in the control condition. Educational implications underline the importance of relevance instructions for guiding readers toward the graphic and of the design of text-graphic pairing to sustain knowledge revision.     

Experimental evidence of the superiority of the prevalence model of conceptual change over the classical models and repetition

This quasi‐experimental study investigated the effects on 558 grades five and six students of three different teaching conditions: the classical model of conceptual change (for which cognitive conflict is considered as a precondition to the transformation of knowledge), the prevalence model of conceptual change (in which different conceptions can coexist, with one of them surpassing the others), and repetition of traditional teaching (that avoids cognitive conflicts and concentrates on the automatization of appropriate thought processes). These conditions were reduced to sequencing considerations, as classical model participants were first subjected to a possible cognitive conflict induced by a video, followed by another video about the targeted conceptions; prevalence model participants were subjected to the same videos but in the opposite chronological order; and repetition condition participants watched the “traditional teaching” video twice. Differences in accuracy and response times between our computerized and validated “sink/float” pretest and retest were analyzed. Results and interpretations confirm that cognitive conflicts are useful in teaching sequences that aim at producing conceptual changes. However, the major findings of this research suggest that such conflicts should not necessarily be triggered at the very beginning of teaching sequences, and therefore that the prevalence model might possibly be the preferable one to promote conceptual changes in real‐life school science teaching settings. Recommendations for teaching and research are formulated. Presented results, although statistically significant, sometimes show weak effects sizes, and therefore call for further research efforts. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 52: 1082–1108, 2015. Cette recherche étudie l'effet de trois conditions expérimentales sur des élèves de 5^e et 6^e années du primaire: le modèle classique du changement conceptuel (selon lequel le conflit cognitif est considéré comme préalable à une transformation des connaissances), le modèle de prévalence conceptuelle (selon lequel différentes conceptions peuvent coexister, avec l'une d'elle qui prévaut sur les autres) et la répétition simple de l'enseignement (qui néglige de produire des conflits cognitifs et se concentre sur l'automatisation des procédés et informations qui mènent aux bonnes réponses). Ces conditions ont été réduites à des considérations de séquençage. Ainsi, les sujets de la condition classique ont d'abord été exposés à des informations présentées par vidéo et susceptible de produire un conflit cognitif, suivi par une autre vidéo présentant les conceptions scientifiques désirées; les sujets de la condition prévalence ont écouté les deux mêmes vidéos mais dans l'ordre inverse; et les sujets de la condition répétition ont vu deux fois la vidéo des conceptions scientifiques. Une analyse comparative des gains d'exactitude et de temps de réaction lors d'une tâche portant sur la flottabilité des corps a été effectuée. Les résultats et l'interprétation tendent à confirmer que les conflits cognitifs sont nécessaires aux changements conceptuels. Cependant, les résultats suggèrent également que les conflits n'ont pas nécessairement avantage à être provoqués en début de séquence et conséquemment que le modèle de prévalence serait possiblement celui qui aurait avantage à être utilisé en classe de science. Des recommandations pédagogiques sont formulées. Malgré des résultats clairement significatifs, les faibles magnitudes d'effets obtenues pour certaines mesures appellent à la prudence et à la poursuite des travaux.